FLIR Exx series User Manual
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FLIR Exx series User Manual

Infrared camera
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User's manual
Publ. No.
T559597
Revision
a500
Language
English (EN)
Issue date
December 10, 2010
FLIR Exx series

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  • Page 1 User’s manual FLIR Exx series Publ. No. T559597 Revision a500 Language English (EN) Issue date December 10, 2010...
  • Page 3 User’s manual Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...
  • Page 4 FLIR Systems or this warranty will not apply. FLIR Systems will, at its option, repair or replace any such defective product free of charge if, upon inspection, it proves to be defective in material or workmanship and provided that it is returned to FLIR Systems within the said one-year period.
  • Page 5 NOT FAULT TOLERANT. THE SOFTWARE IS NOT FAULT TOLERANT. FLIR Systems AB HAS INDEPENDENTLY DETERMINED ■ HOW TO USE THE SOFTWARE IN THE DEVICE, AND MS HAS RELIED UPON FLIR Systems AB TO CONDUCT SUFFICIENT TESTING TO DETERMINE THAT THE SOFTWARE IS SUITABLE FOR SUCH USE.
  • Page 6 Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 7: Table Of Contents

    Table of contents Warnings & Cautions ........................Notice to user ..........................Customer help ..........................Documentation updates ......................... Important note about this manual ....................Parts lists ............................Scope of delivery ........................List of accessories and services ................... Quick Start Guide ........................... Camera parts ...........................
  • Page 8 15.3 Creating and setting up a difference calculation ..............15.4 Changing object parameters ....................16 Fetching data from external Extech meters ................. 16.1 Typical moisture measurement and documentation procedure .......... 17 Working with alarms ........................17.1 Building alarms ........................18 Annotating images .......................... 18.1 Taking a digital photo ......................
  • Page 9 24.3.1.2 Guidelines for moisture detection, mold detection & detection of water damages .................. 24.3.1.3 Guidelines for detection of air infiltration & insulation deficiencies ... 24.3.2 About moisture detection ..................24.3.3 Moisture detection (1): Low-slope commercial roofs .......... 24.3.3.1 General information ................24.3.3.2 Safety precautions ................
  • Page 10 Rain showers ......................25.7.3 Emissivity ......................25.7.4 Reflected apparent temperature ................25.7.5 Object too far away ....................26 About FLIR Systems ........................26.1 More than just an infrared camera ..................26.2 Sharing our knowledge ......................26.3 Supporting our customers ....................
  • Page 11 30 Theory of thermography ........................ 30.1 Introduction ........................... 30.2 The electromagnetic spectrum .................... 30.3 Blackbody radiation ......................30.3.1 Planck’s law ......................30.3.2 Wien’s displacement law ..................30.3.3 Stefan-Boltzmann's law ..................30.3.4 Non-blackbody emitters ..................30.4 Infrared semi-transparent materials ..................31 The measurement formula ......................32 Emissivity tables ..........................
  • Page 12 Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 13: Warnings & Cautions

    Do not attach the batteries directly to a car’s cigarette lighter socket, unless a ■ specific adapter for connecting the batteries to a cigarette lighter socket is provided by FLIR Systems. Do not connect the positive terminal and the negative terminal of the battery ■...
  • Page 14 1 – Warnings & Cautions Do not make holes in the battery with objects. Do not hit the battery with a ■ hammer. Do not step on the battery, or apply strong impacts or shocks to it. Do not put the batteries in or near a fire, or into direct sunlight. When the battery ■...

  • Page 15: Notice To User

    As with most electronic products, this equipment must be disposed of in an environ- mentally friendly way, and in accordance with existing regulations for electronic waste. Please contact your FLIR Systems representative for more details. Training To read about infrared training, visit: http://www.infraredtraining.com...

  • Page 16: Customer Help

    Customer help General For customer help, visit: http://support.flir.com Submitting a To submit a question to the customer help team, you must be a registered user. It question only takes a few minutes to register online. If you only want to search the knowledge- base for existing questions and answers, you do not need to be a registered user.

  • Page 17: Documentation Updates

    To access the latest manuals and notifications, go to the Download tab at: http://support.flir.com It only takes a few minutes to register online. In the download area you will also find the latest releases of manuals for our other products, as well as manuals for our historical and obsolete products.

  • Page 18: Important Note About This Manual

    Important note about this manual General FLIR Systems issues generic manuals that cover several cameras within a model line. This means that this manual may contain descriptions and explanations that do not apply to your particular camera model. NOTE FLIR Systems reserves the right to discontinue models, software, parts or accessories, and other items, or to change specifications and/or functionality at any time without prior notice.

  • Page 19: Parts Lists

    * Dependent on the camera model/customer configuration. NOTE FLIR Systems reserves the right to discontinue models, parts or accessories, and other items, or to change specifications at any time without prior notice. Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 20: List Of Accessories And Services

    T910973 MO297: Moisture meter, pinless with memory ■ NOTE FLIR Systems reserves the right to discontinue models, parts or accessories, and other items, or to change specifications at any time without prior notice. Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 21: Quick Start Guide

    Move the image from the card or camera, using a drag-and-drop operation. NOTE You can also move the images to the computer using FLIR Tools, which comes with your camera. Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 22: Camera Parts

    Camera parts View from the right Figure T638786;a1 Explanation This table explains the figure above: Cover for the right-hand connectors compartment: USB-A ■ USB mini-B ■ Power ■ Trigger to preview/save images Tripod mount. Requires an adapter (extra accessory) Focus ring Infrared lens Publ.

  • Page 23: View From The Left

    8 – Camera parts View from the left Figure T638790;a1 Explanation This table explains the figure above: Laser pointer Lamp for the digital camera Digital camera Cover for connectors and storage media: Memory card ■ Video out ■ Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 24: Keypad

    8 – Camera parts Keypad Figure T638787;a1 Explanation This explains the figure above: Touch-screen LCD Navigation pad Button to confirm choice ■ Button to go between automatic and manual adjustment modes ■ Image archive Button to operate the laser pointer Power indicator On/off button Publ.
  • Page 25 8 – Camera parts Button to display the menu system ■ Back button ■ Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 26: View From The Bottom

    8 – Camera parts View from the bottom Figure T638785;a3 Explanation This table explains the figure above: Latch to open the cover for the battery compartment. Push to open Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 27: Battery Condition Led Indicator

    8 – Camera parts Battery condition LED indicator Figure T638791;a1 Explanation This table explains the battery condition LED indicator: Type of signal Explanation The green LED flashes two times per The battery is being charged. second. The green LED glows continuously. The battery is fully charged.

  • Page 28: Power Led Indicator

    8 – Camera parts Power LED indicator Figure T638781;a1 Explanation This table explains the power LED indicator: Type of signal Explanation The LED is off. The camera is off. The LED is blue. The camera is on. Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 29: Laser Pointer

    8 – Camera parts Laser pointer General The camera has a laser pointer. When the laser pointer is on, you can see a laser dot above the target. Figure This figure shows the difference in position between the laser pointer and the optical center of the infrared lens: T638771;a1 WARNING...
  • Page 30 8 – Camera parts Laser rules and Wavelength: 635 nm. Maximum output power: 1 mW. regulations This product complies with 21 CFR 1040.10 and 1040.11 except for deviations pur- suant to Laser Notice No. 50, dated June 24, 2007. Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 31: Screen Elements

    Screen elements Figure T638713;a2 Explanation This table gives an explanation to the figure above: Measurement result table Measurement tools (e.g., area and spotmeter) Status and mode icons Tooltip for the currently selected menu item Temperature scale Setup Video clips recording Camera mode/live image mode Object parameters Measurement tools...

  • Page 32: Navigating The Menu System

    Navigating the menu system T638777;a1 T638780;a1 Figure Explanation The figure above shows the two ways to navigate the menu system in the camera: Using the index finger to navigate the menu system (left). ■ Using the navigation pad to navigate the menu system (right). ■...

  • Page 33: Connecting External Devices And Storage Media

    Connecting external devices and storage media Figure T638789;a4 Explanation This table explains the figure above: Indicator showing that the memory card is busy. Note: Do not remove the memory card when this indicator glows Memory card Headset cable Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...
  • Page 34 11 – Connecting external devices and storage media Figure T638788;a1 Explanation This table explains the figure above: Power cable USB mini-B cable USB-A cable Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 35: Pairing Bluetooth Devices

    Pairing Bluetooth devices General Before you can use a Bluetooth device with the camera, you need to pair the devices. Procedure Follow this procedure: Go to (Setup) . Go to the Connectivity tab. Activate Bluetooth. Select Add Bluetooth device. Select Scan for Bluetooth device and wait until a list of available devices is displayed.

  • Page 36: Handling The Camera

    Handling the camera 13.1 Turning on the camera Procedure To turn on the camera, push and release the button. 13.2 Turning off the camera Procedure To turn on the camera, push and hold the button for more than 0.2 second. Publ.

  • Page 37: Adjusting The Infrared Camera Focus Manually

    13 – Handling the camera 13.3 Adjusting the infrared camera focus manually Do not touch the lens surface when you adjust the infrared camera focus manually. NOTE ■ If this happens, clean the lens according to the instructions in section 20.2 – In- frared lens on page 51.

  • Page 38: Operating The Laser Pointer

    13 – Handling the camera 13.4 Operating the laser pointer Figure T638778;a1 Procedure Follow this procedure to operate the laser pointer: To turn on the laser pointer, push and hold the laser button. To turn off the laser pointer, release the laser button. Publ.

  • Page 39: Working With Images

    Working with images 14.1 Previewing an image General You can preview an infrared image or digital photo before you save it to a memory card. This enables you to see if the image or photo contains the information you want before you save it.

  • Page 40: Saving An Image

    14 – Working with images 14.2 Saving an image General You can save an image directly, without previewing the image first. Image capacity This table gives information on the approximate number of infrared (IR) and digital camera (DC) images that can be saved on memory cards: Card size IR only IR + DC...

  • Page 41: Opening An Image

    14 – Working with images 14.3 Opening an image General When you save an image, the image is stored on a memory card. To display the image again, open it from the memory card. Procedure Follow this procedure to open an image: Push Push the navigation pad up/down or left/right to select the image you want to view.

  • Page 42: Adjusting An Image

    14 – Working with images 14.4 Adjusting an image General An image can be adjusted automatically or manually. You use the button to switch between these two modes. Note that this only works in live mode and not in preview/archive mode. Example 1 This figure shows two infrared images of cable connection points.
  • Page 43 14 – Working with images Example 2 This figure shows two infrared images of an isolator in a power line. In the image on the left the cold sky and the power line structure have been recorded at a minimum temperature of –26.0°C (–14.8°F). In the right image the maximum and minimum temperature levels have been changed to temperature levels near the iso- lator.
  • Page 44 14 – Working with images Changing Follow this procedure to change the temperature scale level: temperature scale level Push Use the navigation pad to select (Manual). To change the scale level, push the navigation pad up/down. Changing Follow this procedure to change the temperature scale span: temperature scale span Push...

  • Page 45: Changing The Palette

    14 – Working with images 14.5 Changing the palette General You can change the color palette that the camera uses to display different tempera- tures. A different palette can make it easier to analyze an image. Procedure Follow this procedure to change the palette: Push to display the menu system.

  • Page 46: Deleting An Image

    14 – Working with images 14.6 Deleting an image General You can delete one or more images in a folder. Procedure Follow this procedure to delete an image: Push Push the navigation pad up/down or left/right to select the image you want to delete.

  • Page 47: Deleting All Images

    14 – Working with images 14.7 Deleting all images General You can delete all images in a folder. Procedure Follow this procedure to delete all images: Push Push to display the menu system. Use the navigation pad to select Select Delete all. Push and confirm that you want to delete the images.

  • Page 48: Creating A Pdf Report In The Camera

    14 – Working with images 14.8 Creating a PDF report in the camera General You can create a PDF report in the camera. You can then move the PDF report to a computer, using a USB memory stick, or via Bluetooth, and send the report to a customer.

  • Page 49: Working With Measurement Tools

    Working with measurement tools 15.1 Laying out a measurement tool General To measure a temperature, you use one or several measurement tools, such as a spotmeter, a box, etc. Procedure Follow this procedure to lay out a measurement tool: Push to display the menu system.

  • Page 50: Moving Or Resizing A Measurement Tool

    15 – Working with measurement tools 15.2 Moving or resizing a measurement tool General You can move and resize a measurement tool. NOTE This procedure assumes that you have previously laid out a measurement tool on the screen. Procedure Follow this procedure to move or resize a measurement tool: Push to display the menu system.

  • Page 51: Creating And Setting Up A Difference Calculation

    15 – Working with measurement tools 15.3 Creating and setting up a difference calculation General A difference calculation gives the difference between the values of two known mea- surement results. NOTE This procedure assumes that you have previously laid out at least two measurement tools on the screen.

  • Page 52: Changing Object Parameters

    15 – Working with measurement tools 15.4 Changing object parameters General For accurate measurements, you must set the object parameters. Types of The camera can use these object parameters: parameters Emissivity, i.e., how much radiation an object emits, compared with the radiation ■...
  • Page 53 15 – Working with measurement tools Procedure Follow this procedure to change the object parameters: Push to display the menu system. Use the navigation pad to go to Push to display a dialog box. Use the navigation pad to select and change an object parameter. Push .

  • Page 54: Fetching Data From External Extech Meters

    Technical support support@extech.com for Extech meters This support is for Extech meters only. For technical support for infrared cameras, go to http://support.flir.com. This procedure assumes that you have paired the Bluetooth devices. NOTE ■ For more information about products from Extech Instruments, go to ■...
  • Page 55 16 – Fetching data from external Extech meters On the meter, enable Bluetooth mode. Refer to the user documentation for the meter for information on how to do this. On the meter, choose the quantity that you want to use (voltage, current, resistance, etc.).

  • Page 56: Typical Moisture Measurement And Documentation Procedure

    16 – Fetching data from external Extech meters 16.1 Typical moisture measurement and documentation procedure General The following procedure can form the basis for other procedures using Extech meters and infrared cameras. Procedure Follow this procedure: Use the infrared camera to identify any potential damp areas behind walls and ceilings.

  • Page 57: Working With Alarms

    Working with alarms 17.1 Building alarms General The camera features alarm types that are specific to the building trade. You can make the camera trigger the following types of alarms: Humidity alarm: Triggers when a measurement tool detects a surface where the ■...

  • Page 58: Annotating Images

    Annotating images General This section describes how to save additional information to an infrared image by using annotations. The reason for using annotations is to make reporting and post-processing more efficient by providing essential information about the image, such as conditions, photos, information about where an image is taken, and so on.

  • Page 59: Taking A Digital Photo

    18 – Annotating images 18.1 Taking a digital photo General When you save an infrared image you can also take a digital photo of the object of interest. This digital photo will automatically be grouped together with the infrared image, which will simplify post-processing and reporting. NOTE This procedure assumes that you have not set the camera to automatically add a digital photo.

  • Page 60: Creating A Text Annotation

    18 – Annotating images 18.2 Creating a text annotation General A text annotation is grouped with an image file. Using this feature, you can annotate images. This text can be revised later. This feature is very efficient when saving information on an image when you are in- specting a large number of similar objects.

  • Page 61: Changing Settings

    Changing settings General You can change a variety of settings for the camera: Camera settings, such as the display intensity, power management, touch-screen ■ calibration, default settings, etc. Preferences, such as settings for annotations, overlay, etc. ■ Connectivity, such as settings for Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, etc. ■...

  • Page 62: Cleaning The Camera

    Cleaning the camera 20.1 Camera housing, cables, and other items Liquids Use one of these liquids: Warm water ■ A weak detergent solution ■ Equipment A soft cloth Procedure Follow this procedure: Soak the cloth in the liquid. Twist the cloth to remove excess liquid. Clean the part with the cloth.

  • Page 63: Infrared Lens

    20 – Cleaning the camera 20.2 Infrared lens Liquids Use one of these liquids: 96% isopropyl alcohol. ■ A commercial lens cleaning liquid with more than 30% isopropyl alcohol. ■ Equipment Cotton wool Procedure Follow this procedure: Soak the cotton wool in the liquid. Twist the cotton wool to remove excess liquid.

  • Page 64: Infrared Detector

    20 – Cleaning the camera 20.3 Infrared detector General Even small amounts of dust on the infrared detector can result in major blemishes in the image. To remove any dust from the detector, follow the procedure below. This section only applies to cameras where removing the lens exposes the infrared NOTE ■...

  • Page 65: Technical Data

    Technical data For technical data, refer to the datasheets on the user documentation CD-ROM that comes with the camera. Technical data is also available at http://support.flir.com. Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 66: Additional Data

    21 – Technical data 21.1 Additional data Field of view and T638855;a1 distance, 18 mm/25° lens Figure 21.1 Relationship between field of view and distance. 1: Distance to target; 2: VFOV = vertical field of view; 3: HFOV = horizontal field of view, 4: IFOV = instan- taneous field of view (size of one detector element).

  • Page 67: Dimensional Drawings

    Dimensional drawings 22.1 Camera dimensions, front view (1) Figure T638765;a1 Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 68: Camera Dimensions, Front View

    22 – Dimensional drawings 22.2 Camera dimensions, front view (2) Figure T638766;a1 Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 69: Camera Dimensions, Side View (1)

    22 – Dimensional drawings 22.3 Camera dimensions, side view (1) Figure T638772;a1 Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 70: Camera Dimensions, Side View (2)

    22 – Dimensional drawings 22.4 Camera dimensions, side view (2) Figure T638773;a1 Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 71: Camera Dimensions, Side View (3)

    22 – Dimensional drawings 22.5 Camera dimensions, side view (3) Figure T638774;a1 Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 72: Infrared Lens (30 Mm/15°)

    22 – Dimensional drawings 22.6 Infrared lens (30 mm/15°) Figure 10762503;a1 Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 73: Infrared Lens (10 Mm/45°)

    22 – Dimensional drawings 22.7 Infrared lens (10 mm/45°) Figure 10762403;a1 Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 74: Battery (1)

    22 – Dimensional drawings 22.8 Battery (1) Figure T638782;a1 NOTE Use a clean, dry cloth to remove any water or moisture on the battery before you install Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 75: Battery (3)

    22 – Dimensional drawings 22.9 Battery (2) Figure T638783;a1 NOTE Use a clean, dry cloth to remove any water or moisture on the battery before you install Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 76: Battery (3)

    22 – Dimensional drawings 22.10 Battery (3) Figure T638784;a1 NOTE Use a clean, dry cloth to remove any water or moisture on the battery before you install Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 77: Battery Charger (1)

    22 – Dimensional drawings 22.11 Battery charger (1) Figure T638767;a1 NOTE Use a clean, dry cloth to remove any water or moisture on the battery before you put it in the battery charger. Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 78: Battery Charger (2)

    22 – Dimensional drawings 22.12 Battery charger (2) Figure T638768;a1 NOTE Use a clean, dry cloth to remove any water or moisture on the battery before you put it in the battery charger. Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 79: Battery Charger (3)

    22 – Dimensional drawings 22.13 Battery charger (3) Figure T638769;a1 NOTE Use a clean, dry cloth to remove any water or moisture on the battery before you put it in the battery charger. Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 80: Battery Charger (4)

    22 – Dimensional drawings 22.14 Battery charger (4) Figure T638770;a1 NOTE Use a clean, dry cloth to remove any water or moisture on the battery before you put it in the battery charger. Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 81: Application Examples

    Application examples 23.1 Moisture & water damage General It is often possible to detect moisture and water damage in a house by using an in- frared camera. This is partly because the damaged area has a different heat conduc- tion property and partly because it has a different thermal capacity to store heat than the surrounding material.

  • Page 82: Faulty Contact In Socket

    23 – Application examples 23.2 Faulty contact in socket General Depending on the type of connection a socket has, an improperly connected wire can result in local temperature increase. This temperature increase is caused by the reduced contact area between the connection point of the incoming wire and the socket , and can result in an electrical fire.

  • Page 83: Oxidized Socket

    23 – Application examples 23.3 Oxidized socket General Depending on the type of socket and the environment in which the socket is installed, oxides may occur on the socket's contact surfaces. These oxides can lead to locally increased resistance when the socket is loaded, which can be seen in an infrared image as local temperature increase.

  • Page 84: Insulation Deficiencies

    23 – Application examples 23.4 Insulation deficiencies General Insulation deficiencies may result from insulation losing volume over the course of time and thereby not entirely filling the cavity in a frame wall. An infrared camera allows you to see these insulation deficiencies because they either have a different heat conduction property than sections with correctly installed insu- lation, and/or show the area where air is penetrating the frame of the building.

  • Page 85: Draft

    23 – Application examples 23.5 Draft General Draft can be found under baseboards, around door and window casings, and above ceiling trim. This type of draft is often possible to see with an infrared camera, as a cooler airstream cools down the surrounding surface. NOTE When you are investigating draft in a house, there should be sub-atmospheric pressure in the house.

  • Page 86: Introduction To Building Thermography

    Introduction to building thermography 24.1 Disclaimer 24.1.1 Copyright notice Some sections and/or images appearing in this chapter are copyrighted to the follow- ing organizations and companies: FORMAS—The Swedish Research Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences ■ and Spatial Planning, Stockholm, Sweden ITC—Infrared Training Center, Boston, MA, United States ■...

  • Page 87: Typical Field Investigations

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.3 Typical field investigations 24.3.1 Guidelines As will be noted in subsequent sections there are a number of general guidelines the user should take heed of when carrying out building thermography inspection. This section gives a summary of these guidelines. 24.3.1.1 General guidelines The emissivity of the majority of building materials fall between 0.85 and 0.95.

  • Page 88: Guidelines For Detection Of Air Infiltration & Insulation Deficiencies

    24 – Introduction to building thermography Infrared inspection does not directly detect the presence of mold, rather it may be ■ used to find moisture where mold may develop or has already developed. Mold requires temperatures between +4°C to +38°C (+40°F to +100°F), nutrients and moisture to grow.

  • Page 89: About Moisture Detection

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.3.2 About moisture detection Moisture in a building structure can originate from several different sources, e.g.: External leaks, such as floods, leaking fire hydrants etc. ■ Internal leaks, such as freshwater piping, waste water piping etc. ■...

  • Page 90: Safety Precautions

    24 – Introduction to building thermography Cause Poor workmanship 47.6 Roof traffic Poor design 16.7 Trapped moisture Materials Age & weathering Potential leak locations include the following: Flashing ■ Drains ■ Penetrations ■ Seams ■ Blisters ■ 24.3.3.2 Safety precautions Recommend a minimum of two people on a roof, preferably three or more.

  • Page 91: Commented Building Structures

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.3.3.3 Commented building structures This section includes a few typical examples of moisture problems on low-slope commercial roofs. Structural drawing Comment 10553603;a2 Inadequate sealing of roof membrane around conduit and ventilation ducts leading to local leakage around the conduit or duct.

  • Page 92: Commented Infrared Images

    24 – Introduction to building thermography Structural drawing Comment 10553803;a2 Drainage channels located too high and with too low an inclination. Some water will remain in the drainage channel after rain, which may lead to local leakage around the channel. 10553903;a2 Inadequate sealing between roof membrane and roof outlet leading to local leakage around the roof...
  • Page 93 24 – Introduction to building thermography Infrared inspections of roofs with nonabsorbent insulations, common in many single- ply systems, are more difficult to diagnose because patterns are more diffuse. This section includes a few typical infrared images of moisture problems on low-slope commercial roofs: Infrared image Comment...

  • Page 94: Moisture Detection (2): Commercial & Residential Façades

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.3.4 Moisture detection (2): Commercial & residential façades 24.3.4.1 General information Thermography has proven to be invaluable in the assessment of moisture infiltration into commercial and residential façades. Being able to provide a physical illustration of the moisture migration paths is more conclusive than extrapolating moisture meter probe locations and more cost-effective than large intrusive test cuts.
  • Page 95 24 – Introduction to building thermography Structural drawing Comment 10554503;a2 Rain hits the façade at an angle and penetrates the plaster through cracks. The water then follows the inside of the plaster and leads to frost erosion. 10554603;a2 Rain splashes on the façade and penetrates the plaster and masonry by absorption, which eventu- ally leads to frost erosion.

  • Page 96: Commented Infrared Images

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.3.4.3 Commented infrared images This section includes a few typical infrared images of moisture problems on commercial & residential façades. Infrared image Comment 10554703;a1 Improperly terminated and sealed stone veneer to window frame and missing flashings has resulted in moisture infiltration into the wall cavity and inte- rior living space.

  • Page 97: Commented Building Structures

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.3.5.2 Commented building structures This section includes a few typical examples of moisture problems on decks and balconies. Structural drawing Comment 10555203;a2 Improper sealing of paving and membrane to roof outlet, leading to leakage during rain. 10555103;a2 No flashing at deck-to-wall connection, leading to rain penetrating the concrete and insulation.
  • Page 98 24 – Introduction to building thermography Structural drawing Comment 10555003;a2 Water has penetrated the concrete due to inade- quately sized drop apron and has led to concrete disintegration and corrosion of reinforcement. SECURITY RISK! 10554903;a2 Water has penetrated the plaster and underlying masonry at the point where the handrail is fastened to the wall.

  • Page 99: Commented Infrared Images

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.3.5.3 Commented infrared images This section includes a few typical infrared images of moisture problems on decks and balconies. Infrared image Comment 10555303;a1 Improper flashing at balcony-to-wall connections and missing perimeter drainage system resulted in moisture intrusion into the wood framing support structure of the exterior walkway balcony of a loft complex.

  • Page 100: Commented Infrared Images

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.3.6.2 Commented infrared images This section includes a few typical infrared images of plumbing breaks & leaks. Infrared image Comment 10555503;a1 Moisture migration tracking along steel joist chan- nels inside ceiling of a single family home where a plumbing line had ruptured.
  • Page 101 24 – Introduction to building thermography Infrared image Comment 10555703;a1 The infrared image of this vinyl-sided 3-floor apartment house clearly shows the path of a seri- ous leak from a washing machine on the third floor, which is completely hidden within the wall. 10555803;a1 Water leak due to improper sealing between floor drain and tiles.

  • Page 102: Air Infiltration

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.3.7 Air infiltration 24.3.7.1 General information Due to the wind pressure on a building, temperature differences between the inside and the outside of the building, and the fact that most buildings use exhaust air terminal devices to extract used air from the building, a negative pressure of 2–5 Pa can be expected.
  • Page 103 24 – Introduction to building thermography Structural drawing Comment 10552303;a2 Insulation deficiencies in an intermediate flow due to improperly installed fiberglass insulation batts. The air infiltration enters the room from behind the cornice. 10552603;a2 Air infiltration in a concrete floor-over-crawl-space due to cracks in the brick wall façade.

  • Page 104: Commented Infrared Images

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.3.7.3 Commented infrared images This section includes a few typical infrared images of details of building structures where air infiltration has occurred. Infrared image Comment 10552703;a1 Air infiltration from behind a skirting strip. Note the typical ray pattern.

  • Page 105: Insulation Deficiencies

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.3.8 Insulation deficiencies 24.3.8.1 General information Insulation deficiencies do not necessarily lead to air infiltration. If fiberglass insulation batts are improperly installed air pockets will form in the building structure. Since these air pockets have a different thermal conductivity than areas where the insulation batts are properly installed, the air pockets can be detected during a building ther- mography inspection.
  • Page 106 24 – Introduction to building thermography Structural drawing Comment 10553103;a2 Insulation deficiencies due to improper installation of insulation batts around an attic floor beam. Cool air infiltrates the structure and cools down the in- side of the ceiling. This kind of insulation deficiency will show up as dark areas on an infrared image.

  • Page 107: Commented Infrared Images

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.3.8.3 Commented infrared images This section includes a few typical infrared images of insulation deficiencies. Infrared image Comment 10553303;a1 Insulation deficiencies in an intermediate floor structure. The deficiency may be due to either missing insulation batts or improperly installed in- sulations batts (air pockets).
  • Page 108 24 – Introduction to building thermography Infrared image Comment 10553503;a1 Insulation deficiencies in an intermediate floor structure. The deficiency may be due to either missing insulation batts or improperly installed in- sulations batts (air pockets). Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 109: Theory Of Building Science

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.4 Theory of building science 24.4.1 General information The demand for energy-efficient constructions has increased significantly in recent times. Developments in the field of energy, together with the demand for pleasant indoor environments, have resulted in ever-greater significance having to be attached to both the function of a building’s thermal insulation and airtightness and the efficiency of its heating and ventilation systems.

  • Page 110: The Effects Of Testing And Checking

    24 – Introduction to building thermography the results of measurements, there are special requirements in terms of the skills and experience of those taking the measurements, e.g. by means of authorization by a national or regional standardization body. 24.4.2 The effects of testing and checking It can be difficult to anticipate how well the thermal insulation and airtightness of a completed building will work.

  • Page 111: Sources Of Disruption In Thermography

    24 – Introduction to building thermography For the user the important thing is that the finished product fulfills the promised ■ requirements in terms of the building’s thermal insulation and airtightness. For the individual, buying a house involves a considerable financial commitment, and the purchaser therefore wants to know that any defects in the construction will not in- volve serious financial consequences or hygiene problems.
  • Page 112 24 – Introduction to building thermography The temperature changes associated with variations in the U value are generally gradual and symmetrically distributed across the surface. Variations of this kind do of course occur at the angles formed by roofs and floors and at the corners of walls. Temperature changes associated with air leaks or insulation defects are in most cases more evident with characteristically shaped sharp contours.

  • Page 113: Surface Temperature And Air Leaks

    24 – Introduction to building thermography Any wet surfaces, e.g. as a result of surface condensation, have a definite effect on heat transfer at the surface and the surface temperature. Where there is moisture on a surface, there is usually some evaporation which draws off heat, thus lowering the temperature of the surface by several degrees.
  • Page 114 24 – Introduction to building thermography In a steady wind flow, Bernoulli’s Law applies: where: Air density in kg/m ρ Wind velocity in m/s Static pressure in Pa and where: denotes the dynamic pressure and p the static pressure. The total of these pressures gives the total pressure.
  • Page 115 24 – Introduction to building thermography 10551803;a1 Figure 24.3 Distribution of resultant pressures on a building’s enclosing surfaces depending on wind effects, ventilation and internal/external temperature difference. 1: Wind direction; T : Thermodynamic air temper- ature outdoors in K; T : Thermodynamic air temperature indoors in K.
  • Page 116 24 – Introduction to building thermography 10551903;a1 Figure 24.4 Stress concentration factor (C) distributions for various wind directions and wind velocities (v) relative to a building. Wind conditions can vary substantially over time and between relatively closely situ- ated locations. In thermography, such variations can have a clear effect on the mea- surement results.
  • Page 117 24 – Introduction to building thermography part. At a certain height there is a neutral zone where the pressures on the inside and outside are the same, see the figure on page 106. This differential pressure may be described by the relationship: Air pressure differential within the structure in Pa Δp 9.81 m/s...
  • Page 118 24 – Introduction to building thermography 10552003;a1 Figure 24.5 Distribution of pressures on a building with two openings and where the external temperature is lower than the internal temperature. 1: Neutral zone; 2: Positive pressure; 3: Negative pressure; h: Distance from the neutral zone in meters. The position of the neutral zone may vary, depending on any leaks in the building.

  • Page 119: Measuring Conditions & Measuring Season

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.4.5 Measuring conditions & measuring season The foregoing may be summarized as follows as to the requirements with regard to measuring conditions when carrying out thermographic imaging of buildings. Thermographic imaging is done in such a way that the disruptive influence from ex- ternal climatic factors is as slight as possible.
  • Page 120 24 – Introduction to building thermography In practice the method involves the following: Laboratory or field tests are used to produce an expected temperature distribution in the form of typical or comparative infrared images for common wall structures, com- prising both defect-free structures and structures with in-built defects. Examples of typical infrared images are shown in section 24.3 –...

  • Page 121: Humidity & Dew Point

    24 – Introduction to building thermography Deviations and irregularities in the appearance of the infrared image often indicate insulation defects. There may obviously be considerable variations in the appearance of infrared images of structures with insulation defects. Certain types of insulation defects have a characteristic shape on the infrared image.

  • Page 122: Introduction

    24 – Introduction to building thermography Fax: +44 (0)1604 231489 24.4.8.2 Introduction Over the last few years the equipment, applications, software, and understanding connected with thermography have all developed at an astonishing rate. As the technology has gradually become integrated into mainstream practises, a correspond- ing demand for application guides, standards and thermography training has arisen.

  • Page 123: Quantitative Appraisal Of Thermal Anomalies

    24 – Introduction to building thermography Thermal anomalies. ■ Differentiate between real thermal anomalies, where temperature differences are ■ caused by deficiencies in thermal insulation, and those that occur through con- founding factors such as localised differences in air movement, reflection and emissivity.
  • Page 124 24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.4.8.4.2 Alternative method using only surface temperatures There are strong arguments for basing thermographic surveys on surface temperatures alone, with no need to measure air temperature. Stratification inside the building makes reference to air internal temperatures very ■...
  • Page 125 24 – Introduction to building thermography Example for lightweight built-up cladding with defective Good area Failing area insulation Outside surface temperature in ℃ Surface factor from IP17/01 0.95 0.75 Critical external surface temperature factor, after IP17/01 0.92 Insulation thickness to give this level of performance, mm Local U value W/m 0.35 1.92...

  • Page 126: Conditions And Equipment

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.4.8.4.4 Measuring surface temperature Measurement of surface temperature is the function of the infrared imaging system. The trained thermographer will recognise, account for and report on the variation of emissivity and reflectivity of the surfaces under consideration. 24.4.8.4.5 Measuring area of the defects Measurement of defect area can be performed by pixel counting in the thermal anal-...

  • Page 127: Survey And Analysis

    24 – Introduction to building thermography Wind speed to be less than 10 metres / second (19.5 kn.). ■ As well as temperature, there are other environmental conditions that should also be taken into account when planning a thermographic building survey. External inspec- tions, for example, may be influenced by radiation emissions and reflections from adjacent buildings or a cold clear sky, and even more significantly the heating effect that the sun may have on surface.

  • Page 128: Reporting

    24 – Introduction to building thermography Produce an image of each anomaly or cluster of anomalies. Use a software analysis tool to enclose the anomalous area within the image, taking ■ care not to include construction details that are to be excluded. Calculate the area below the threshold temperature for internal surveys or above ■...
  • Page 129 24 – Introduction to building thermography Access to the surface. Buildings where both the internal and the external surfaces ■ are obscured, e.g., by false ceilings racking or materials stacked against walls may not be amenable to this type of survey. Location of the thermal insulation.

  • Page 130: Introduction To Thermographic Inspections Of Electrical Installations

    Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 25.1 Important note All camera functions and features that are described in this section may not be sup- ported by your particular camera configuration. Electrical regulations differ from country to country. For that reason, the electrical procedures described in this section may not be the standard of procedure in your particular country.

  • Page 131: General Equipment Data

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations and for the climatic zones. The measurement periods may also differ depending on the type of plant to be inspected, whether they are hydroelectric, nuclear, coal-based or oil-based plants. In the industry the inspections are—at least in Nordic countries with clear seasonal differences—carried out during spring or autumn or before longer stops in the oper- ation.

  • Page 132: Inspection

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations The more the IR camera operator knows about the equipment that he or she is about to inspect, the higher the quality of the inspection. But it is virtually impossible for an IR thermographer to have detailed knowledge about all the different types of equipment that can be controlled.

  • Page 133: Priority

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations The classification of the defects gives a more detailed meaning that not only takes into account the situation at the time of inspection (which is certainly of great impor- tance), but also the possibility to normalize the over-temperature to standard load and ambient temperature conditions.

  • Page 134: Control

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations However, the most common result of the identification and classification of the detected faults is a recommendation to repair immediately or as soon as it is practically possible. It is important that the repair crew is aware of the physical principles for the identifica- tion of defects.

  • Page 135: Measurement Technique For Thermographic Inspection Of Electrical Installations

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 25.3 Measurement technique for thermographic inspection of electrical installations 25.3.1 How to correctly set the equipment A thermal image may show high temperature variations: 10712803;a4 Figure 25.2 Temperature variations in a fusebox In the images above, the fuse to the right has a maximum temperature of +61°C (+142°F), whereas the one to the left is maximum +32°C (+90°F) and the one in the middle somewhere in between.
  • Page 136 25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations to be in for the moment. It might be so that you measure heat, which has been con- ducted over some distance, whereas the ‘real’ hot spot is hidden from you. An example is shown in the image below.

  • Page 137: Comparative Measurement

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 25.3.3 Comparative measurement For thermographic inspections of electrical installations a special method is used, which is based on comparison of different objects, so-called measurement with a reference. This simply means that you compare the three phases with each other. This method needs systematic scanning of the three phases in parallel in order to assess whether a point differs from the normal temperature pattern.

  • Page 138: Normal Operating Temperature

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 10713303;a4 Figure 25.7 A profile (line) in an infrared image and a graph displaying the increasing temperature 25.3.4 Normal operating temperature Temperature measurement with thermography usually gives the absolute temperature of the object. In order to correctly assess whether the component is too hot, it is necessary to know its operating temperature, that is, its normal temperature if we consider the load and the temperature of its environment.

  • Page 139: Classification Of Faults

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations The two left phases are considered as normal, whereas the right phase shows a very clear excess temperature. Actually, the operating temperature of the left phase is +68°C (+154°F), that is, quite a substantial temperature, whereas the faulty phase to the right shows a temperature of +86°C (+187°F).
  • Page 140 25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations Excess temperatures measured directly on the faulty part are usually divided into three categories relating to 100% of the maximum load. < 5°C (9°F) The start of the overheat condi- tion. This must be carefully monitored.

  • Page 141: Reporting

    The program, which has been used for creating the report page shown below, is called FLIR Reporter. It is adapted to several types of infrared cameras from FLIR Systems. A professional report is often divided into two sections: Front pages, with facts about the inspection, such as: ■...
  • Page 142 25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 10713603;a3 Figure 25.10 A report example Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 143: Different Types Of Hot Spots In Electrical Installations

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 25.5 Different types of hot spots in electrical installations 25.5.1 Reflections The thermographic camera sees any radiation that enters the lens, not only originating from the object that you are looking at, but also radiation that comes from other sources and has been reflected by the target.

  • Page 144: Inductive Heating

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 10713803;a3 Figure 25.12 An infrared image of a circuit breaker 25.5.3 Inductive heating 10713903;a3 Figure 25.13 An infrared image of hot stabilizing weights Eddy currents can cause a hot spot in the current path. In cases of very high currents and close proximity of other metals, this has in some cases caused serious fires.

  • Page 145: Varying Cooling Conditions

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 10714003;a3 Figure 25.14 Examples of infrared images of load variations The image to the left shows three cables next to each other. They are so far apart that they can be regarded as thermally insulated from each other. The one in the middle is colder than the others.

  • Page 146: Resistance Variations

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 25.5.6 Resistance variations Overheating can have many origins. Some common reasons are described below. Low contact pressure can occur when mounting a joint, or through wear of the mate- rial, for example, decreasing spring tension, worn threads in nuts and bolts, even too much force applied at mounting.
  • Page 147 25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 10714303;a3 Figure 25.17 Overheating in a circuit breaker The overheating of this circuit breaker is most probably caused by bad contact in the near finger of the contactor. Thus, the far finger carries more current and gets hotter. The component in the infrared image and in the photo is not the same, however, it is similar).

  • Page 148: Disturbance Factors At Thermographic Inspection Of Electrical Installations

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 25.6 Disturbance factors at thermographic inspection of electrical installations During thermographic inspections of different types of electrical installations, distur- bance factors such as wind, distance to object, rain or snow often influence the measurement result.

  • Page 149: Distance To Object

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations snow or rain and reliable measurement is no longer possible. This is mainly because a heavy snowfall as well as heavy rain is impenetrable to infrared radiation and it is rather the temperature of the snowflakes or raindrops that will be measured. 25.6.3 Distance to object This image is taken from a helicopter 20 meters (66 ft.) away from this faulty connec-...

  • Page 150: Object Size

    The reason for this effect is that there is a smallest object size, which gives correct temperature measurement. This smallest size is indicated to the user in all FLIR Sys- tems cameras. The image below shows what you see in the viewfinder of camera model 695.
  • Page 151 25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations as well, strongly lowering the reading. In the above case, where we have a point- shaped object, which is much hotter than the surroundings, the temperature reading will be too low. 10714703;a3 Figure 25.21 Image from the viewfinder of a ThermaCAM 695 This effect is due to imperfections in the optics and to the size of the detector elements.

  • Page 152: Practical Advice For The Thermographer

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 25.7 Practical advice for the thermographer Working in a practical way with a camera, you will discover small things that make your job easier. Here are five of them to start with. 25.7.1 From cold to hot You have been out with the camera at +5°C (+41°F).

  • Page 153: Reflected Apparent Temperature

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 25.7.4 Reflected apparent temperature You are in a measurement situation where there are several hot sources that influence your measurement. You need to have the right value for the reflected apparent tem- perature to input into the camera and thus get the best possible correction.

  • Page 154: About Flir Systems

    About FLIR Systems FLIR Systems was established in 1978 to pioneer the development of high-performance infrared imaging systems, and is the world leader in the design, manufacture, and marketing of thermal imaging systems for a wide variety of commercial, industrial, and government applications.

  • Page 155: More Than Just An Infrared Camera

    10 L (2.6 US gallon) jar with liquid nitrogen. To the left of the oscilloscope the Polaroid attachment (6 kg/13 lb.) can be seen. RIGHT: FLIR i7 from 2009. Weight: 0.34 kg (0.75 lb.), including the battery.

  • Page 156: Sharing Our Knowledge

    26.3 Supporting our customers FLIR Systems operates a worldwide service network to keep your camera running at all times. If you discover a problem with your camera, local service centers have all the equipment and expertise to solve it within the shortest possible time. Therefore, there is no need to send your camera to the other side of the world or to talk to someone who does not speak your language.
  • Page 157 26 – About FLIR Systems 10401403;a1 Figure 26.4 LEFT: Diamond turning machine; RIGHT: Lens polishing 10401503;a1 Figure 26.5 LEFT: Testing of infrared cameras in the climatic chamber; RIGHT: Robot used for camera testing and calibration Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 158: Glossary

    Glossary Term or expression Explanation absorption (absorption factor) The amount of radiation absorbed by an object relative to the received radiation. A number between 0 and 1. atmosphere The gases between the object being measured and the camera, normally air. autoadjust A function making a camera perform an internal image correc- tion.
  • Page 159 27 – Glossary Term or expression Explanation external optics Extra lenses, filters, heat shields etc. that can be put between the camera and the object being measured. filter A material transparent only to some of the infrared wavelengths. Field of view: The horizontal angle that can be viewed through an IR lens.
  • Page 160 27 – Glossary Term or expression Explanation palette The set of colors used to display an IR image. pixel Stands for picture element. One single spot in an image. radiance Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time, area and angle (W/m /sr) radiant power...
  • Page 161 27 – Glossary Term or expression Explanation transmission (or transmittance) factor Gases and materials can be more or less transparent. Transmis- sion is the amount of IR radiation passing through them. A number between 0 and 1. transparent isotherm An isotherm showing a linear spread of colors, instead of cover- ing the highlighted parts of the image.

  • Page 162: Thermographic Measurement Techniques

    Thermographic measurement techniques 28.1 Introduction An infrared camera measures and images the emitted infrared radiation from an object. The fact that radiation is a function of object surface temperature makes it possible for the camera to calculate and display this temperature. However, the radiation measured by the camera does not only depend on the tem- perature of the object but is also a function of the emissivity.

  • Page 163: Finding The Emissivity Of A Sample

    28 – Thermographic measurement techniques 28.2.1 Finding the emissivity of a sample 28.2.1.1 Step 1: Determining reflected apparent temperature Use one of the following two methods to determine reflected apparent temperature: 28.2.1.1.1 Method 1: Direct method Look for possible reflection sources, considering that the incident angle = reflection angle (a = b).
  • Page 164 28 – Thermographic measurement techniques Measure the radiation intensity (= apparent temperature) from the reflecting source using the following settings: Emissivity: 1.0 ■ ■ You can measure the radiation intensity using one of the following two methods: 10589003;a2 Figure 28.3 1 = Reflection source Note: Using a thermocouple to measure reflected apparent temperature is not recom- mended for two important reasons: A thermocouple does not measure radiation intensity...

  • Page 165: Step 2: Determining The Emissivity

    28 – Thermographic measurement techniques Measure the apparent temperature of the aluminum foil and write it down. 10727003;a2 Figure 28.4 Measuring the apparent temperature of the aluminum foil 28.2.1.2 Step 2: Determining the emissivity Select a place to put the sample. Determine and set reflected apparent temperature according to the previous procedure.

  • Page 166: Reflected Apparent Temperature

    50%. 28.6 Other parameters In addition, some cameras and analysis programs from FLIR Systems allow you to compensate for the following parameters: Atmospheric temperature – i.e. the temperature of the atmosphere between the ■...

  • Page 167: History Of Infrared Technology

    History of infrared technology Before the year 1800, the existence of the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum wasn't even suspected. The original significance of the infrared spectrum, or simply ‘the infrared’ as it is often called, as a form of heat radiation is perhaps less obvious today than it was at the time of its discovery by Herschel in 1800.
  • Page 168 29 – History of infrared technology however, who was the first to recognize that there must be a point where the heating effect reaches a maximum, and that measurements confined to the visible portion of the spectrum failed to locate this point. 10398903;a1 Figure 29.2 Marsilio Landriani (1746–1815) Moving the thermometer into the dark region beyond the red end of the spectrum,...
  • Page 169 29 – History of infrared technology 10399103;a1 Figure 29.3 Macedonio Melloni (1798–1854) Thermometers, as radiation detectors, remained unchallenged until 1829, the year Nobili invented the thermocouple. (Herschel’s own thermometer could be read to 0.2 °C (0.036 °F), and later models were able to be read to 0.05 °C (0.09 °F)). Then a breakthrough occurred;...
  • Page 170 29 – History of infrared technology The improvement of infrared-detector sensitivity progressed slowly. Another major breakthrough, made by Langley in 1880, was the invention of the bolometer. This consisted of a thin blackened strip of platinum connected in one arm of a Wheatstone bridge circuit upon which the infrared radiation was focused and to which a sensitive galvanometer responded.

  • Page 171: Theory Of Thermography

    Theory of thermography 30.1 Introduction The subjects of infrared radiation and the related technique of thermography are still new to many who will use an infrared camera. In this section the theory behind ther- mography will be given. 30.2 The electromagnetic spectrum The electromagnetic spectrum is divided arbitrarily into a number of wavelength re- gions, called bands, distinguished by the methods used to produce and detect the radiation.

  • Page 172: Blackbody Radiation

    Such cavity radiators are commonly used as sources of radiation in temperature reference standards in the laboratory for calibrating thermo- graphic instruments, such as a FLIR Systems camera for example. Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...

  • Page 173: Planck's Law

    30 – Theory of thermography If the temperature of blackbody radiation increases to more than 525°C (977°F), the source begins to be visible so that it appears to the eye no longer black. This is the incipient red heat temperature of the radiator, which then becomes orange or yellow as the temperature increases further.

  • Page 174: Wien's Displacement Law

    30 – Theory of thermography ➲ The factor 10 is used since spectral emittance in the curves is expressed in Watt/m , μm. Planck’s formula, when plotted graphically for various temperatures, produces a family of curves. Following any particular Planck curve, the spectral emittance is zero at λ...
  • Page 175 30 – Theory of thermography μm. Thus, a very hot star such as Sirius (11 000 K), emitting bluish-white light, radiates with the peak of spectral radiant emittance occurring within the invisible ultraviolet spectrum, at wavelength 0.27 μm. 10399403;a1 Figure 30.5 Wilhelm Wien (1864–1928) The sun (approx.

  • Page 176: Stefan-Boltzmann's Law

    30 – Theory of thermography 10327203;a4 Figure 30.6 Planckian curves plotted on semi-log scales from 100 K to 1000 K. The dotted line represents the locus of maximum radiant emittance at each temperature as described by Wien's displacement law. 1: Spectral radiant emittance (W/cm (μm));...

  • Page 177: Non-Blackbody Emitters

    30 – Theory of thermography 10399303;a1 Figure 30.7 Josef Stefan (1835–1893), and Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906) Using the Stefan-Boltzmann formula to calculate the power radiated by the human body, at a temperature of 300 K and an external surface area of approx. 2 m , we obtain 1 kW.
  • Page 178 30 – Theory of thermography For opaque materials τ = 0 and the relation simplifies to: λ Another factor, called the emissivity, is required to describe the fraction ε of the radiant emittance of a blackbody produced by an object at a specific temperature. Thus, we have the definition: The spectral emissivity ε...

  • Page 179: Infrared Semi-Transparent Materials

    30 – Theory of thermography 10401203;a2 Figure 30.8 Spectral radiant emittance of three types of radiators. 1: Spectral radiant emittance; 2: Wavelength; 3: Blackbody; 4: Selective radiator; 5: Graybody. 10327303;a4 Figure 30.9 Spectral emissivity of three types of radiators. 1: Spectral emissivity; 2: Wavelength; 3: Blackbody;...
  • Page 180 30 – Theory of thermography some of it arrives at the other surface, through which most of it escapes; part of it is reflected back again. Although the progressive reflections become weaker and weaker they must all be added up when the total emittance of the plate is sought. When the resulting geometrical series is summed, the effective emissivity of a semi- transparent plate is obtained as: When the plate becomes opaque this formula is reduced to the single formula:...

  • Page 181: The Measurement Formula

    The measurement formula As already mentioned, when viewing an object, the camera receives radiation not only from the object itself. It also collects radiation from the surroundings reflected via the object surface. Both these radiation contributions become attenuated to some extent by the atmosphere in the measurement path.
  • Page 182 31 – The measurement formula or, with simplified notation: where C is a constant. Should the source be a graybody with emittance ε, the received radiation would consequently be εW source We are now ready to write the three collected radiation power terms: 1 –...
  • Page 183 31 – The measurement formula This is the general measurement formula used in all the FLIR Systems thermographic equipment. The voltages of the formula are: Figure 31.2 Voltages Calculated camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature i.e. a voltage that can be directly converted into true requested object temperature.
  • Page 184 5 volts, the resulting curve would have been very much the same as our real curve extrapolated beyond 4.1 volts, pro- vided the calibration algorithm is based on radiation physics, like the FLIR Systems algorithm. Of course there must be a limit to such extrapolations.
  • Page 185 31 – The measurement formula 10400603;a2 Figure 31.3 Relative magnitudes of radiation sources under varying measurement conditions (SW camera). 1: Object temperature; 2: Emittance; Obj: Object radiation; Refl: Reflected radiation; Atm: atmosphere radiation. Fixed parameters: τ = 0.88; T = 20°C (+68°F); T = 20°C (+68°F).
  • Page 186 31 – The measurement formula 10400703;a2 Figure 31.4 Relative magnitudes of radiation sources under varying measurement conditions (LW camera). 1: Object temperature; 2: Emittance; Obj: Object radiation; Refl: Reflected radiation; Atm: atmosphere radiation. Fixed parameters: τ = 0.88; T = 20°C (+68°F); T = 20°C (+68°F).

  • Page 187: Emissivity Tables

    Emissivity tables This section presents a compilation of emissivity data from the infrared literature and measurements made by FLIR Systems. 32.1 References Mikaél A. Bramson: Infrared Radiation, A Handbook for Applications, Plenum press, N.Y. William L. Wolfe, George J. Zissis: The Infrared Handbook, Office of Naval Research, Department of Navy, Washington, D.C.

  • Page 188: Tables

    32 – Emissivity tables 32.3 Tables Figure 32.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3: Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6: Reference 3M type 35 Vinyl electrical < 80 Ca.
  • Page 189 32 – Emissivity tables Aluminum roughened 3 µm 0.28 Aluminum roughened 10 µm 0.18 Aluminum rough surface 20–50 0.06–0.07 Aluminum sheet, 4 samples 0.03–0.06 differently scratched Aluminum sheet, 4 samples 0.05–0.08 differently scratched Aluminum vacuum deposited 0.04 Aluminum weathered, heavily 0.83–0.94 Aluminum bronze 0.60...
  • Page 190 32 – Emissivity tables Brass rubbed with 80- 0.20 grit emery Brass sheet, rolled 0.06 Brass sheet, worked with emery Brick alumina 0.68 Brick common 0.86–0.81 Brick Dinas silica, 1100 0.85 glazed, rough Brick Dinas silica, refrac- 1000 0.66 tory Brick Dinas silica, 1000...
  • Page 191 32 – Emissivity tables Brick waterproof 0.87 Bronze phosphor bronze 0.06 Bronze phosphor bronze 0.08 Bronze polished Bronze porous, rough 50–150 0.55 Bronze powder 0.76–0.80 Carbon candle soot 0.95 Carbon charcoal powder 0.96 Carbon graphite, filed sur- 0.98 face Carbon graphite powder 0.97 Carbon...
  • Page 192 32 – Emissivity tables Copper oxidized, heavily 0.78 Copper oxidized to black- 0.88 ness Copper polished 50–100 0.02 Copper polished 0.03 Copper polished, commer- 0.03 cial Copper polished, mechan- 0.015 ical Copper pure, carefully 0.008 prepared surface Copper scraped 0.07 Copper dioxide powder 0.84...
  • Page 193 32 – Emissivity tables Granite rough, 4 different 0.95–0.97 samples Gypsum 0.8–0.9 Ice: See Water Iron, cast casting 0.81 Iron, cast ingots 1000 0.95 Iron, cast liquid 1300 0.28 Iron, cast machined 800–1000 0.60–0.70 Iron, cast oxidized 0.63 Iron, cast oxidized 0.64 Iron, cast...
  • Page 194 32 – Emissivity tables Iron and steel hot rolled 0.77 Iron and steel hot rolled 0.60 Iron and steel oxidized 0.74 Iron and steel oxidized 0.74 Iron and steel oxidized 125–525 0.78–0.82 Iron and steel oxidized 0.79 Iron and steel oxidized 1227 0.89...
  • Page 195 32 – Emissivity tables Iron tinned sheet 0.064 Krylon Ultra-flat Flat black Room temperature Ca. 0.96 black 1602 up to 175 Krylon Ultra-flat Flat black Room temperature Ca. 0.97 black 1602 up to 175 Lacquer 3 colors sprayed 0.92–0.94 on Aluminum Lacquer 3 colors sprayed 0.50–0.53...
  • Page 196 32 – Emissivity tables Magnesium 0.18 Magnesium polished 0.07 Magnesium pow- 0.86 Molybdenum 600–1000 0.08–0.13 Molybdenum 1500–2200 0.19–0.26 Molybdenum filament 700–2500 0.1–0.3 Mortar 0.87 Mortar 0.94 Nextel Velvet 811- Flat black –60–150 > 0.97 10 and 21 Black Nichrome rolled 0.25 Nichrome sandblasted...
  • Page 197 32 – Emissivity tables Nickel electroplated on 0.11 iron, unpolished Nickel oxidized 0.37 Nickel oxidized 0.37 Nickel oxidized 1227 0.85 Nickel oxidized at 600°C 200–600 0.37–0.48 Nickel polished 0.045 Nickel wire 200–1000 0.1–0.2 Nickel oxide 500–650 0.52–0.59 Nickel oxide 1000–1250 0.75–0.86 Oil, lubricating 0.025 mm film...
  • Page 198 32 – Emissivity tables Paint oil based, average 0.94 of 16 colors Paint plastic, black 0.95 Paint plastic, white 0.84 Paper 4 different colors 0.92–0.94 Paper 4 different colors 0.68–0.74 Paper black 0.90 Paper black, dull 0.94 Paper black, dull 0.89 Paper black, dull...
  • Page 199 32 – Emissivity tables Plastic polyurethane isola- 0.55 tion board Plastic polyurethane isola- 0.29 tion board Plastic PVC, plastic floor, 0.93 dull, structured Plastic PVC, plastic floor, 0.94 dull, structured Platinum 0.016 Platinum 0.03 Platinum 0.05 Platinum 0.06 Platinum 0.10 Platinum 1000–1500 0.14–0.18...
  • Page 200 32 – Emissivity tables Skin human 0.98 Slag boiler 0–100 0.97–0.93 Slag boiler 200–500 0.89–0.78 Slag boiler 600–1200 0.76–0.70 Slag boiler 1400–1800 0.69–0.67 Snow: See Water Soil 0.92 Soil saturated with wa- 0.95 Stainless steel alloy, 8% Ni, 18% 0.35 Stainless steel rolled 0.45...
  • Page 201 32 – Emissivity tables Titanium oxidized at 540°C 0.40 Titanium oxidized at 540°C 0.50 Titanium oxidized at 540°C 1000 0.60 Titanium polished 0.15 Titanium polished 0.20 Titanium polished 1000 0.36 Tungsten 0.05 Tungsten 600–1000 0.1–0.16 Tungsten 1500–2200 0.24–0.31 Tungsten filament 3300 0.39 Varnish...
  • Page 202 32 – Emissivity tables Wood pine, 4 different 0.81–0.89 samples Wood pine, 4 different 0.67–0.75 samples Wood planed 0.8–0.9 Wood planed oak 0.90 Wood planed oak 0.88 Wood planed oak 0.77 Wood plywood, smooth, 0.82 Wood plywood, untreat- 0.83 Wood white, damp 0.7–0.8 Zinc...
  • Page 203 A note on the technical production of this publication This publication was produced using XML—the eXtensible Markup Language. For more information about XML, please visit http://www.w3.org/XML/ A note on the typeface used in this publication This publication was typeset using Swiss 721, which is Bitstream’s pan-European version of the Helvetica™ typeface. Helvetica™ was designed by Max Miedinger (1910–1980).
  • Page 204 Publ. No. T559597 Rev. a500 – ENGLISH (EN) – December 10, 2010...
  • Page 206 Corporate Headquarters FLIR Systems, Inc. 27700 SW Parkway Avenue Wilsonville, OR 97070 Telephone: +1-800-727-3547 Website: http://www.flir.com...

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