Page 2 OR O T RE...
Page 4 TI O O CA L IT F OR F OR A R A C R AN D...
Page 5 L IM I NA R...
Page 6 d P l F OR F OR...
Page 7 U LL l A d A RG...
Page 10 literally mean s the culture of forests that is say all measures connected with the formation preserva tion and treatment of forests In practice however the word r ess and comprise all this forestry i s used to exp while by r mation ilviculture in its narrower sense...
Page 11 TI O uence the climate to r gulate the drainage of t country to prevent landslips or avala ches to arrest shifting sand s r ticular speci In each of th se and other cases the pa s of r own and the m r e likely to e to thod of treatm...
Page 14 natural forest veg tation of the various parts of the a rth consists of a la r ge number of specie s of t r ees and h as its peculia r mode of growth a nd hrubs each of which r tain conditi on s r di thrives best und...
Page 15 TI O Obtain perfection only if they are mixed with the former h er pecies are called according to whet h e mo r e y belong to the ﬁrst or second class If t r t r ees r owing important timb the above m entioned...
Page 16 N a plant ge r minates on surface of the arth h e air send s its root s into soil and it s stem into t h e subsoil r ovid h e plant soil assisted by t s to t m eans r is h m r e overlying the soil...
Page 17 IT Y TI O a seous bodies The earth is surrounded by g which move with it and collectively are termed the atmosphere wing r ts r e is dens to the weight of its componen t pa the atmosphe r face of the r with close to the su...
Page 19 TI O r t in the circulation of r om the oisture they receive it f hr ough t h e r oots r ate it through soil t and evapo leaves h is perpetual circula r motion of moistu r e r al point In t seve...
Page 20 I MA T to provide for that contained in a he increment of wood r ing the same pe r iod laid on du In other cases rvations h ave shown t h at the quantities deposited a re conside r ably less h an r acre actual amount depends in the ﬁrst...
Page 21 TI O r st place eat a ects pla t life in various ways In the ﬁ r ation it is necessary for trans the plants and evapo ration from the surface of the eart secondly it govern s the movement of the air which prod uces a thorou h mixture of...
Page 22 is subj ect to modiﬁcations igh plat aux of considerable a n that calculated for their extent sho w a milder climate th a n at the elevation because the sun s rays are more intense th h e sea level of t the other hand wind currents exercise a...
Page 23 TI O surface of the soil to rise the same time air currents a using a rapid change sweep unimpeded over such localities of the atmosphere a full crop of forest vegetation localities covered with the sun s rays strike the crowns of the trees the heat absorbed by the air at some h ight above the gro und...
Page 24 which have be n enumerated in the introduction o f this part but so far the available data are of limited use in ilvicultu M o r eover it is b yond doubt that the mean temperatur of the h less impo r tant to forest trees than the tempera year is muc r e which prevails d uring the growing season It has been stat...
Page 25 IT Y T A TI ON FO R r t h er north accompanied by willow alder and popla r o wth the species become smaller and of slower g until M ayr suggests the following brushwood alone remains division into zo nes r est zone Tropical fo which he calls the...
Page 27 TI O radiation vaporation th e descent of cold from higher r cu r rents r cases localities and absenc of ai in o the they are h e several speci h in their to cold winds s vary muc r ing towards late and ea r ly fro sts in a general way t following classiﬁcation will hold good...
Page 28 on going nor but increas s on rising d light creas s on going north or rising in mountains a ssim light is beli ved to b e a t least as favo urable for lation as direct sun light This would explain why the crown s of es develop evenly all round the stem r ing the process of germination light is not r...
Page 29 TI O a nd a l way latter In a g r ees with a d en se c r own are shade it may be said that t a ring h in c r own light d and those with a t manding though r se...
Page 30 a red by v a rious a uthors a lly prep which though gener gree er somewhat in d tails The following scale begins with the most light d emanding species and ﬁnishes with the ime and W eymouth pine stan d in the r ing most shade bea h is scale...
Page 31 TI O r on north a spects covered sky the same species stand s h ad less s than in cl ar air under a sunny sky or on southern r esp r emembe r aspects In this ct it m ust d that the actual intensity of the light is som at gr...
Page 32 T UR a nd further investigation i s a s far as tree are concerned r e t quired ey can be of g neral practical use in h a s spruce ilviculture It is kno wn that some pecies alde maple and next to these...
Page 33 IT Y T A TI O N F OR temperature and on the other a falling temperature r educes r ee of evapo r ation h e result is the d that saturation and precipitation occur only locally r e mean s a high degree of ral rule mperatu r t h an...
Page 35 TI O a lready been stated that plants It has and more especially r equire a c r tain lay r of soil r oots trees into which their h ic h p r ovides t h em with nouris h ment and t h e penetrate and w r this lay...
Page 36 TI O r bon dioxide n and water which contains ca and oth r acid s into contact with the rock they fo h its elements chemical combinations wit oxyg n acts r ming especially on m etals as compounds of iron h yd r ates of m h is addition of water...
Page 37 IT Y T A TI ON original rock out of which it has been formed This is r investigation h e case only to a limited clo se found to be t r st plac extent caus ﬁ rtain impor ant substanc such as potas lime...
Page 38 ITI O N OMPO M agnesia i s ost fr quent in dolomite though smaller quantiti found in most other soils r tant salts a r e T he most impo P otassium carbonate sodium carbonate ( soda ) potash sodium chlo ride ( common salt carbonate s sulph ates an d...
Page 39 form s in mixture with the upp r layer mineral substanc r black ea r th o f the for h umu s the mould o sourc s of h e annual fall of leaves and twigs ven whole trees and dead plants h es several The continuo us decomposition of humus furnis...
Page 40 r from The soil receives wate or more of the following so urces h ere rom the atmo sp as dew rain snow hail or as h yg r oscopic action of the s oil vapo ur condensed by r ound wate r r rom g sting in s ubsoil...
Page 41 TI O r ocess or the duction o f volume of the soil under the p r ying of d It causes cracks in the soil follow d by the r e of the r oots r ack more than light soils exposu eavy soils c r ally p r oportional to the pe r centage of ﬁne earth...
Page 43 TI O ﬁ It i s o ut of stio to attempt a classiﬁcation according r is it nec to all component substanc because the r substances importance of sand clay and humus h s t h at of all oth r substances so outweig that the latter...
Page 44 I F I TI O a y be mild r ably upon or sour ﬁrst acts very favou tree growth the two latter unfavo urably r ding to the r apidity with oil s may also be classiﬁed acco which the humus is decomposed a lcar uch as dry porous sand and c o us...
Page 45 IT Y T A TI ON F O R r ee of distinction mu st be mad betw average deg h e soil during the growing moisture and the condition of t r t h h e following arrangement ason a s set fo r om it without t h e application of r r un s...
Page 46 TI O The depth is measured by the thickness of the layer of soil and of that portio n of the subsoil which can be pene r e the space by the roots In due proportion to de th a h e stability of the trees available for the root system of nourishing substances...
Page 47 TI O d epth of feet belo surfac unless they do not ﬁnd r lay r s of ﬁci nt moistu in t soil a case r y season occurring in count s with a long d r m no r too loos r able for tre eith r too ﬁ...
Page 48 T O F T A TI O N F O R a bove enumerated the rest they m ay be classiﬁed as follo ws Common alder xt to this ash most poplars and willows pine hornbeam lime mountain a sh pedunculate oak ilver ﬁr pruce...
Page 49 IT Y T A TI ON F OR ﬁeld crop it requires more lime but much less of the rarer h an d pho spho r ic acid substa such as potas Conifers req uire smaller quantiti cially cotch h ich is satisﬁed with about one pine fourth of those wanted by beec...
Page 51 TI O a nt is the preservation of t h e h umus import the same time h umus i s likely to lead to an exc too large an accumulation of r ioration of t h e soil and the humic acid followed r mation of a pan...
Page 52 T OF F O R T A TI O N IT Y h e subj ect general idea of t In practice deviation s occur stantly according to the local condition s under which r ow trees g r evious s It has been shown in ction s that the r n s...
Page 53 IT Y AND F TI O hence the extremes of temperature are moderated the climate rendered mor equable r atur The m ean temp and the adjoini air is lo wer The reduction is greatest in summ next in spring next in autumn and it is slight in winter...
Page 54 T O F F OR T A TI ON IT Y interrupted and thinner followed by a crop of n oxious weed s too rapid decomposition of the humus accelerated evapora tion of the moisture from upper layer of the soil generally a reduction of the fertility the soil To prevent...
Page 55 TI O ITY AND FO those of W eymouth pine r ian pine cotch pine r ﬁ r and sp r uce last thos of silve leaves thos of ash r nb lime and haz l decompo se quickly lowly the leaves of oak birch and s eet ch...
Page 56 IT Y h en these conife r s begin to thin out to some extent the moss disappear gradually except in very moist localities hence h em selves be t r eated under a high these pecies should not by t rotation xcept on f rtil...
Page 57 IT Y T A TI ON F OR ssessm nt according to a crop of trees already produced on or near the locality h e second m never t tho d is possible it should h ould follow only in the absenc of a forest crop s ﬁrst h od b e adopted...
Page 59 IT Y T A TI ON F OR h e r r se h us an idea can be of coars grain s t and t r m ed of r osity e of po h e capacity to ab so r b wate r r act it from If n to att...
Page 60 IT Y chalk and the coars r clay h e ﬁner clay and par s of humus The thickn ss of the layers indicates the proportion of substance r ing attempts In spite of mo st persev experience has h e locality in the manner sho wn that of t r ave er r ors...
Page 61 IT Y AND FO TI O That the factors the locality have not undergo n e r the better o r wo rse any decided chang either fo r instance during the production of the crop h umus o r t h e degree sto ck of moisture have...
Page 62 IT Y r e the highest The quantities given for the ﬁrst quality a r oduced which can be p an d th y are comparabl r ding the several pecies the sam fairly be said r r the s ﬁgures given fo cond or medium...
Page 63 CH A IN dealing wit h the shape and development of for r ees st t h e student has already acqui r ed a botanical it i s assum d that t knowl dge of several speci so that h only t r al cha r acte r istics n silvicultu...
Page 64 orway maple sycamo sessil sweet chestnut P edu culate oak lime hornbeam mountain pine h ape is considerably alte r ed when the trees are grown in cro ded woods where each enj oys only a limited growing r eater tendency to the spac In that case all specie s hav r own...
Page 65 T O F F O R T T R LO PM h at only shad is t bearing species which satisﬁed with a r e capable of p r ese r ving a compl limited growing pace r up to an advanc r ﬁ...
Page 67 L OPM r owth until t h ey hav fast g complet d th ir principal h ight r owth h o r nb r emain slow thers h t g r ow r s t hr oug h out lif heig The maj ority speci...
Page 68 I AM mong broad leaved pecies sessile oak elm and beech h t growt h longest pres rve th ir heig In the case of the r broad aved species the crown i s rounded at a n r li h eight g r owth pr a ctically c eases r period when...
Page 69 T T R L OPM FO R hen it commences to fall hade h e m aximu bearing species and oak r ach t diam eter r ement lat r on but it i s al so longer maintained to the before it commence s falling to any r abl...
Page 70 V O LUM h e progress courage iameter growth witho ut endangering t o f the height growth The ef ects of a great s urface of foliag and unimpeded r e very rema r kabl h en healthy trees enj oyment of light a r o wded wood r adually...
Page 71 T O F F OR T T R L O PM the o ther hort thick tr es would be produced most r op can only be ascertained by favourabl d ensity of r ate r ience h as shown that the greatest accu tatistics r ately...
Page 72 V O LUM r uce a rch ouglas ﬁr silver ﬁ r ch beech co tch pin o ak r s prod uc conife much larger volumes than r o ad h e diag r am on p r at aved sp will illu st h is...
Page 73 T O F FOR T T R L OPM each with a volume of cubic f total volume per r e will be only cubic feet cubic feet l than in th e ca s of silver ﬁr r ees which ﬁnd r o om on an ac r e o f ground The number of t depends chieﬂy on ment of the...
Page 75 T T R LOPM M or a s wh n grown in the op over in that case various h e r important conside r ation s mu st b e tak n into account h aving weig h r d ecid es on the fter d these foreste...
Page 76 PROD U h e mo r e assu r ed i s reproduction h quantity an d quality h e locality quality of the seed d pend on age of the trees h e available light and the pecies The ﬁrst point of inter st i s the time when t r ious species commence to p r od uce seed ﬁt to ge r minate r t f r om singl...
Page 77 T O F FOR T T R LOPM h e limits of their when they have been cultivated beyond t r al hom r instance natu sweet chestn ut and nglish h er species are v elm in north of ngland r ch and accommodating...
Page 78 PROD U P rofessor has compiled the following data P lacing th e quantity of seed regarded a s a full c r op equal to irch gives annually on an average per cent ornbeam on alder cotch pine pruce ilver ﬁr P eduncul a te o a k B eech...
Page 79 T T R L OPM tree h as been cut down ormant or adventitio us buds h oots h oots lop into they ar e called stool s r e fo r med on d s a roo ts which dev lop into h shoots b r oot suck...
Page 80 PROD U h stool s live di The age to whic ers consid rably according r nb to species and locality last fo nturies tho se of be comparativ hort lived r s in the Thames valley The osie if coppiced ann ually said to last on y about years...
Page 81 CH A IN silviculture es are only in exc ptional cases rear d in r al rule th e position s as a gene n in conside h ich form mo r e o r l masses ss fully stock d wood s r th These may be composed of one speci...
Page 83 H ARA ITI O N O F OMPO O O D xcept in such cases all d pendent species should be rai sed in mixed woods r y tr d wood may so arrang d that eve e of one speci s alternat s with a tree of anothe...
Page 84 V AN T A O OD r e i s suitably arra a larger quantity o f wood if the mixtu h e speci ach spot can stocked with t s which i s best h e locality r eased p r o adapted to factors of t d uction...
Page 85 ITI ON HARA R AND OMPO O OD r otects it hardy species mixed with a tender pecies p r curr against frost drought an d inj urious ai M istakes mad e in the selection of species can more r ectiﬁed in mixed than in pur easily woods...
Page 86 TI O N O F M IX FORMA O OD r ﬁr i s favoured in the regeneration instance silve and spruce r d s planted in if necessary In this mann er r ed p r oportion o f forester can produc the desi several...
Page 87 H ARA ITI O N OF OMPO O OD r op r growing space r o wned of their p Thus the broad r ably in crowded woods oak is liable to su er conside while r ingement in r ativ spruce stand s an inf pace compa ly easily...
Page 88 TI ON OF M IX FO RMA O OD To p vent the shad bearing peci s being k pt back in its growt it should more numerous than the light demanding species r more light d emanding specie s T wo o houl d r man...
Page 89 ITI ON O F HARA OMPO O OD mixtures may be brought und r one of followin g three class M ixtu r es of shade bea r ing speci M ixtu r es of r ing and light d hade bea manding species M ixtu r es o f light demanding specie s...
Page 91 ITI ON O F HARA OMPO O OD r ea against o ccupy more than abo ut ths occupied h e spruce by t This is a mixture of subordinate r equ importance The timber of hornbeam is f ntly mor d emand but beech yi ld s a larger vol ume...
Page 92 IT H L I H T D MAND h e s h ad r ing species r to m in o rde t the r quirements of the case h e principal obj ect in all such mixtures is the full develop ment o f timber yielding light demanding species...
Page 93 ITI ON O F HARA O MPO O OD h is i s a b tter mixture than larch r uc r stand s mor h an spruce and sp a s silver ﬁ hade t h t g r owth is much ultimate heig same ilver ﬁr r...
Page 94 IT H L I MAND r om the shade of the ornbeam i s liable to su er considerably f r equently reduced to an underwood cotch pine so that it is f which be p riodically oppiced a tural mixtures o f o ak and sp r uce are r a r owing r ent c h aracter of the to the di...
Page 95 ITI ON R AND OMPO O OD and shape moreove they are found naturally tog ther beech has been called the oak s nurse oak ﬁn s in the h ading mixtur all the advantages of a permanent complete r ound h eavy fall of leav h ick of the g...
Page 96 IT H L I MAND h ould b e plac d in gro ups in the m oister part s of the locality h occurs pure it should be underplanted with beech r nbeam long b a s been completed or ho its h ight grow...
Page 97 ITI ON O F HARA OMPO O OD a ndards a t a n opportunity is given fo r the production as st so th a ll species of any or It must be a leading principle to let the light demanding species prevail in standard s or and the...
Page 99 ITI ON O F HARA OMPO O OD r iod r ch if it survives that pe comes up and passes i t the bi r es r ved h fall s unde r then requi if it is to h e axe at a comparatively arly and an open wo od of...
Page 100 IXT UR OF L MAND standard s must either very few in number or the underwood su r any circum stances such mixtures r tile moist soil M ixtures of this kind are require a fe instance and alder sweet chestnut and others al so hazel...
Page 101 CH A r al s a silvicultu stem i s understood the systematically r anged m e h od acco r ding to which the formation regenera h compo se a tion tending and utili zation of the woods whic h aract r of The c...
Page 103 I L VI T URAL from a j oining wo od s The young trees are all of the same ight ( or nearly so ) age and h a s soon as the branch es begin r upted leaf canopy to int rlace the tr...
Page 104 TTI N H FOR xposur to the sun may dry up soil and plants they may M o r e also rio usly inj ured by a strong growth of weed s r curr r ike over the ar r uction nts st a without obst s in...
Page 105 I L VI T URAL h en r on in life again with advancing r above the ground h e sun i s still k have b en elevated fa h e r e i s no impediment to ai r currents st r iking o ut but t r ough...
Page 107 I L VI T URAL h e unfavourable rr ents d ct of sun and air cu ring the r ly youth of t h e wood disappears u der this system r otects the soil until the new c r op can r wood p ve it r ence exi sts between this...
Page 108 O OD RO UP r ty o r ﬁfty years h ich the n fo ng w wood is gradu r into the r eg ally wood ration period wood con sists of a series of groups of g ater r extent r anging in age from one to thirty or smalle...
Page 109 I L VI T URAL r ation h e sh or ice better xcept during regene when t lter trees are liable to be th n by wind r o r smaller than under eith r of the previously mentioned two syst r se of time only be proved by actual stati stics in r oducing valuable large timber...
Page 111 I L VI T URA as regard s the preservation an even d gree of moistu r oduction Pr otection is which must act be eﬁcially upon p r om above r m mixtu r e o f old given not only f but the unifo r es late r al s h elter and young t...
Page 112 over the method i s called h owever d istinct line can be d rawn b tween these two syst and in many cases to ping and pollarding must con sidere d r cas as synonymous terms In eithe the trees may be cut over repeatedly j ust a s in ordinary coppice Coppic...
Page 113 I L VI T URAL T AN D AR D The system of coppice with standard s is a combinatio n o f the following two system s imple coppice of even age r eated under tandard s of unev n age t high forest lection system...
Page 115 I L VI T URAL receive equal attention the e ct of the shade thro wn ood m ust always fully considered r ally h ad h ould be evenly dist r ibu the s d over the r abl h at t h e b h e ove r wood area...
Page 116 IT H T ANDARD H F OR r eater n umb loosened and to the g r of insect eating bird s h ic h are found such wood s G ame and mic however often do much damag h forest systems It is smaller than under r obably not v h er hand...
Page 117 I L VI T URAL hence only wind ﬁrm species should be sel d fo r r d s h ould no t be adopted at all in standa syste h ic h locali cially xpos d to stor r of very la r g nder this system timbe imensi ons is pro r own under any ordinary h igh...
Page 119 I L VI T URAL r est r ning piece of fo wood and using the land d uring r mo r r s fo r r oduction of ﬁ h en ld crops and t r est to allowing stablish itself course of r est produce inc r...
Page 120 T RY AND F I h e cl T he buckwh at is sown imm diately aft aring and r ds burning say in June and ha sted weeks afterwa The rye i s sown in autum n and r aped in following summ...
Page 121 I L VI T URAL r ing the l ast r actice has been taken r od uc h e clearings tage of in urma to p young t ak wood s mad e in compa ly useless forest the cul tivators r taking to sow or pl an t t unde ak bet...
Page 123 I L VI T URAL TI ON r ests should general economic principles worked r ary and managed for a sustain d yield and no t for a t r y to s hence it is nec lect a system unde which the factors of locality are at lea st maintai if possible improved...
Page 124 r less f r om wind ther u even aged wood s su snow h an even aged wo ods is as and ice t an open question though it will pro bably be decid d in favour of the form In respect of fro st drought and insects...
Page 125 I L VI T URAL light must be gi en to each individ ual tre ther word s a su ﬁciently la and well d veloped crown r a tions lead to These conside following conclusions rtile soil with a su ﬁcien e of moisture the case of shad...
Page 131 CH A r tain p r eliminary matters a wood can be formed ce m ust be attended to se will be indicated the following three sections ection Choice of species encing eclamation of the soil The success of forestry depend s in the ﬁrst place upon j udicious selection of the species of tree which is to be...
Page 132 UIT AB LITY M ANAG ar ying Obj ects o f management have been indicated on page in any special case species must be s lected as to do th m full j ustice h e obj ect is to grow produce of a deﬁnite desc r iption If t the species must be capable of yielding it ould be usel...
Page 133 I M I NARY results hade bearing species are n ot desirable as standard s in coppic with stand rd s pecies which are tender during r own unde r a shelter youth should be g wood system r dingly selection cies must b e made acco h e selection of species to be planted is further narrowed...
Page 135 I M I NARY ing to the g at va factors of lo cality th e r ed di task of sel n is frequently ﬁcult fertile h soil almost any sp fres cies ill thrive gain the locality has such a decid ed character that only one or h e choic species admissible...
Page 136 h ang of species cially as certain phenomena s emed to h as b support such a vi en obse instance r ees h r e supplant broad leaved conif rous t and the pecies r uce frequen tly u surp s th e plac r ﬁr that sp of silve...
Page 137 I M I NARY h en an inf r io r sp s i s to plac d by a mo valuable h en t h e fertility of the soil in cons quence of faulty r eatment h eavy r at litter has deterio...
Page 139 I M I NARY a re the places where i s represented by while the turf has been excavated the dyke con sisting of r s of turf successive laye P A LI NG a n endless variety of wooden palings There i s shows a wooden fence ording protection again st...
Page 140 ches fo r keeping out animals hould constr cted with r pendicular wall ( a pe ward s sometimes the perpendicular sid is fac d by a ston wall to prevent its the whole ditche s h ence are expensive if con structed so as to be lasting in the r y to other...
Page 141 I M I NARY intermediate thinn r po sts placed from feet apart h six hol have eac s bored into t the end s of h e wi r es are passed th r o ugh thes holes bent round post r ely to t h e wires at h e other strain...
Page 143 I M I NARY O RK pegged down es along the surface outside to prevent rr o h is f rabbits bu ing under i t nce is ered in the r ket for about ondon ma I NA TI ON M ore par requently two kind s of fences are combin...
Page 144 TI ON OF LAMA sheep goats and deer by any of the above mentioned fences wire a lings r e the fences and Often also hedges and wooden p requi a rrang addition of wire netting or a similarly ective h ares only h cheap In the case of rabbits and...
Page 145 I M I NARY Treatment of excessive layer s of vegetable matter ixation of shifting sand ation of unstable soil on slopes h austively It would r quir e a volume to itself to d al ex h t h ese ma h enc h is place only a few sho r t in t...
Page 147 I M I NARY r al forest trees considerably in the cas of the seve while some like moist and even wet soil others will not ﬂourish in such a nt water localiti and no n of t m in stagn It follows that an exc ss of moistu...
Page 148 TI ON LAMA of spring ater or surface drainage coming from highe ground h e surface of the land may Inundation water moving over t be k pt out of a certain locality by a surface embankment r ound r moves underg it can only be stopp d by a substantial underground embankment...
Page 149 I M I NARY r ies of ditches constructing a se or laying down a r ies of drainage pipes The latter are rarely used r est r y because they are expensive and liable to be choked h e same reasons by the roots o f the tre covered ditches are only rar...
Page 151 I M I NA drains must pursue a winding or zig zag course so as to h e fall r ains red uce t or the bas and sides of the d must protected by a facing of stone or fascines in som ca ses the r aced...
Page 152 TI ON LAMA nature of the soil the greater th e cohesion of the latter per may be the lopes of the sides case of peat the sides may be almost perpendicular loam they a n angle of about r ees should for and they must become more and m ore slanting...
Page 153 I M I NARY r iga a special work o n t In a general way r ev tion may described as the rse of draining thus in r esent t h e main supply channel would rep situated in the highest part of the ar ea the leaders r enches the distributing t...
Page 155 I M I NARY adj oining land s If the supply i s kept up these shifting m as se s r m r egular wav r oceed at a c r ate in of sand fo s which p rtain h e same dir h e p r evailing wind...
Page 156 TI ON O F LAMA h water level r m an a r tiﬁcial feet ) from hig to fo h is high enoug h to a r rest t h e forwa r d mo hill whic ment h e sand h is i s done by t h e con struction of an a r t of t and t...
Page 157 I M I NARY pulled up about feet by means leve and this proces s is r tiﬁcial dune has r repeated until the a ached such a heigh t that no sand can be carri d o v top ( see r st e r ection of im ultaneously with ﬁ...
Page 159 I M I NARY I XA TI ON T AB L wing to the action of wate soil on sloping gro nd may r ing downward s caus become un stabl e r ﬁlte r s of t h e soil d uction in the cohesion of nt laye followed by gradual denudation...
Page 160 CH A r ect sowing is understood the formation of a woo d so wing of se d directly on the a a which it is proposed r ious ways stock This can be done in va r the h od may be r ation s chos n met...
Page 161 TI F I I AL F ORMA T I O N O OD r esistance against external seedlings how a g r power of r ious inﬂu r e vigorous d inj u nces and a mo velopment which r eat r ese r ve in many sp s is d ue to the g...
Page 163 TI F I I AL FORMA TI ON O F O OD instance been m aintained in case of cotch pine that r om st r aight t r ees will again produce st r aight seed taken f trees strength of this hypothesis it i s h e seed should b e obtained from localiti...
Page 164 late years a considerable variety of germinating dish have been invented but it is doubtful wh eth r any of th r imitive tests descri surpass the m ore p ed above especially r ing paper tests the ﬂannel and ﬁlte r centag The pe d s ﬁt to g...
Page 165 TI F I I AL F ORMA TI ON OF O OD h ick sowin obtained by t but in that case the d evelopment of h e tre r ed with h ence s would soon be int a mean must r uck in o th r wo r d s r op should...
Page 167 TI F I I AL F ORMA TI ON O F O OD The condition s for the successful germination of forest seed s are thus r ate supply of water t but mode r th a n r om temperatur lowe but bett...
Page 168 denudation as rain water can more easily carry it away r ost lifting is more likely to occur h e cock It may attract inj urious insects such as t h afer h e la r v e of which are very d estructive in h e roots gnawing t h e deg r ee of l oosening...
Page 169 TI F I I AL FORMA TI ON O OD hich it is likely to secure owever the question r e att received mo ntion of late years ature sows in autumn in the case of most species growing r ate r ope in tempe in some cases in summer...
Page 171 TI F I I AL FORMA TI ON OF O OD is liabl e to dry up or to b e inj ured by frost if too thick germination is retard the seedlings have g at di ﬁculty hr ough the cove r ing r mination may in pushing t and ge...
Page 172 a fter may be expected to sprout lapse of time r anging from a week up to two and even three years following data may be taken as illustrations P oplars and willows after about and birch cotch pine black pine a nd l a rch pruce silv...
Page 173 TI F I I AL F ORMA TI ON O F O OD only the more important m ethod s will here be mentioned owings may be divid ed into B roadcast sowing I NG seed be distributed evenly over the whol e area to be stocked the method is called broadcast so wing In some cases broadcast sowings are made withou...
Page 175 TI F I I AL F ORMA TI ON O OD...
Page 176 ssrs...
Page 177 TI F I I AL FORMA TI ON OF O OD Ma ny a nd various are the form s of the sever a l tools which a ve from time to time been recommended for use in t h e a ration of the soil a ble number a re prep...
Page 179 TI F I I AL F ORMA TI ON OF O OD a lities which of seed h ence i t sho uld be restricted to loc r no cultivation requi littl or wher a raw soil and a h of shrubs and weeds necessi tat strong g under any r cum stan c...
Page 180 TI AL weed s brambles and on the rate of height growth of t r ing early youth species d u the greater former and the a der should slower the latter the bro the sown strips G enerally the width would range between inches and feet The distance between the strips depends on similar con...
Page 181 TI F I I AL F O RMA TI ON O OD It admits of a further furrow or with the rak or hoe ar ed with o r dinary strips reduction expenditure as comp The seed bed s co nsist of round oblong square o ular patches of limited...
Page 183 TI F I I AL F ORMA TI ON O OD some cases the operation may be done without any r emoving a small quantity of the surface soil nt at all with the foot rting the seed replacing the previo usly r emoved earth r essing it do wn and p...
Page 184 TI AL r ench to s r ve as a s tter still it i s at once r eviously m ade trench placed into h and and cover h er by hand or The s ed i s sown by d eit h es can be ﬁlled artiﬁcially ith a rake...
Page 185 TI F I I AL FORMA TI ON O OD so as to allow a portion of the moisture to evaporate before sowing The tool s used are the same a s for trench or pit ings a ted in exceptionally The method i s expensive and only indic unfavourable localities It happens not unfrequently that two or more o f the...
Page 187 TI F I I AL FO RMA TI ON O OD r om r e without roots cuttings taken f stem or branches a at starting but they may b come roote d by placing them in a r y befo r e putting them o ut in the forest r ro ots the former have thei r anches entire...
Page 188 PLAN regard s sp cies and the locality which it is proposed to M ore esp r ans plant cially some caution is n ssary in t r ing plants from a rich to a poor soil from a cool no r the r n aspect to a hot southern one from a low to a hig situation...
Page 189 TI F I I AL F ORMA TI O N O OD where trees of some height required a s in pastures frost l ocaliti for ﬁlling up bla ks in already formed plan r d s become the overwood in coppice with standa a not h er of to enable one species to hold its own against a venues...
Page 191 TI F I I AL FO RMA TI O N O OD te of height grow early yout Quick growing cies can be plan t d farther apar than slow g owing cies an d cotch pine must be planted dense on account of their t ndency to branch a ll plan ts...
Page 192 T R I TI ON PLAN a tion of the square form T he quincunx form a modiﬁc as will be seen on reference to regular distribution of the plants has the following a r one advantages over an irregul a ch plant equal growing space is allotted to e The plants...
Page 193 TI F I I AL F ORMA TI ON OF O OD arlier stage ; ﬁ grass cutting can be allowed at an crops be grown between the lines cattle grazing h e r e unavoidable causes less d amage especially if r ranged in lines the plants are a...
Page 195 TI F I I AL FORMA T I O N O F O OD r es or rectangles divide it in the ﬁrst place into squa the sides of which correspond with the lengths of planting and r the corners of the squares or cting lin rectangles have b n ﬁxed...
Page 196 T R I BU TI ON OF PLAN T reliabl e planter i s placed on one ﬂank at and he now advances a space equal to the ﬁxed planting distance in t direction of a pr viously erected mark ( ﬂag ) puts in a second plant advances again the planting distance...
Page 197 TI F I I AL FORMA TI ON O O D plantin g distance keeping at the original distance from the ﬁrst man s line and puts in a pl ant ﬂanking m r th planting spot h bour p r oceed s pro c ed s to his neig...
Page 199 TI F I I AL F ORMA TI ON O OD ccordingly the following numbers of plants are required h e cas per acre in t square planting istanc feet feet feet feet feet feet feet feet feet TI NG PL AN T P lants m ust be lifted in t h e nurse r y with the least possible damag especially to the root system...
Page 200 I F TI N PLAN a rs ago r ted trun eyer about consists of an iron inve cone which in f t an Opening su ﬁcient to admit two ﬁngers and behind j ust above its uppe edge a small r izontal plat r ted up to which the spade should be inse...
Page 201 TI F I I AL FORMA TI ON O F O OD holding it then with left hand ball and plant are r of the pushed out towards the handle with the middl ﬁnge h glides along right hand whic blunt edg of the front opening...
Page 203 TI F I I AL FORMA TI ON O OD r ender the t r ee ant to disease which may ultimately r the purpo se for which it has been grown unﬁt fo search h ealthy condition of timber t r ees may has shown that r es of fungi ent r o ugh wounds...
Page 204 PRUN PLAN re is a great di erence in the tr atment of plants r than oth erent species stand pruning bette both r uned parts and the extent a s regards the replacement of the p to which they expo sed to disease h e w r s stand pruning badly...
Page 205 TI F I I AL FORMA T I ON O OD P RO T I ON PL AN I N TR r ying uring transit plants m ust be protected against d a nd frost and this refers more particularly to the root sy stem r r oo ts minutes exposure Often su...
Page 207 TI F I I AL F ORMA TI ON O OD are now days purc d from nurs rymen This system is r ation s very convenient sin ce the planting ope not int h by wan t r y planting mat r ial ecessa r apid that...
Page 208 I N NUR PLAN PL AN T TI NG nursery pl ants are not available the planting material may r al be obtained from existing yo ung wood s such as natu r sowings h cas regen ration s o In suc the plants are h e parts which...
Page 209 TI F I I AL F ORMA TI ON O OD r ansport i s fairly easy and cheap where the t There is r ence in t h e tr r a r y and prac ically atment of t r ma r ies h at in t h e latt...
Page 211 TI F I I AL FORMA TI O N O F O OD ile living hedges take some years to grow late years r e fences r abbit netting if necessary combin ed with have grown in public favour This will as a r ul not b e n cessary...
Page 212 PLAN a ised a nts can be con sidered in the ﬁrst culti their special w h owev r e sp vation the soil as a rule and those r ying requir of va ments are wanted which it is convenient to raise in any part of the n ursery r these circumstanc r y for the...
Page 213 TI F I I AL F ORMA TI O N O OD h e soil physical q ualities at the outset soil should be of proper co sist n cy it must improv d by the r e of sand to a sti admixtu f soil and by that of loam to an...
Page 215 TI F I I AL F ORMA TI ON O OD which the wood is ignited The e of burnt turf is not of r ing with it has gene r ally to be rep long duration manu ated r y year r ably upon the it acts however...
Page 216 I N NUR lines at such distances that a man can walk between them r ther division is required h e maj ority of and then no fu In t r tments destined fo r sowing a r e cases howeve the compa divided into parallel bed s intersected by paths...
Page 217 TI F I I AL FORMA TI ON O OD r over ss the covering down best by passing a light rolle r ing suitabl h e r owing should only be don weat that h e desired deg r ee of dryn is to say hen the soil i s h od of sowing depends on the species...
Page 219 TI F I I AL FORMA TI ON O OD seedlings grow up lanky while too thin sowing involves lo ss area and consequ ntly increases the co st If the r ect fr om t h e seed bed into the forest seedlings are to go di the quantity seed sho uld be about one...
Page 220 I N NUR PLAN h e seed In som cases the seedlings are taken direct from t bed to the forest in others ey are transplanted once or r sery several times in the nu before they are ﬁnally put out ritish foresters call the former seedling plants and the...
Page 221 TI F I I AL F ORMA TI ON O F O OD a nts in the lines depend s on the size of the plants their more or less rapid development and the time which they are to remain rdinary two year seedlings of...
Page 223 TI F I I AL F ORMA TI ON O OD h es ach of t kind s of plants ha s c rtain advantages r awbacks h e ci r cum stances and d and it depends on t each r ticular ca s h er the one or o ther i s pref...
Page 224 I N NUR PLAN may do as well as tran splants unfavourable localities r able r ge plants latter are prefe also when specially la r equired choic al so epend s on the species In the case cotch pin and oak seedling plants give good results in that...
Page 225 TI F I I AL F ORMA TI ON O OD ares rabbits must be kept out by fencing with wi ting quirrel s must be shot a rv r eworm s mongst insects cockchafer l e and the r ope most destructive in temperate In both cases damage is di...
Page 227 TI F I I AL F ORMA TI ON O OD method s may be the following rules for r al application pl anting are gene h ould h e ground to The plant s placed in t same h at at whic h it stood in the nursery depth as t allowing for a possible settlement of...
Page 228 TI N IT H BALL PLAN r uments plac d into holes m ad with same inst such h e b r holes are ider than t adth of the ball s by the thickn h e i r on o f t so that plants can easily be ins...
Page 229 TI F I I AL FORMA TI ON O OD a lities a nd is specially recommended for loo se soil s frost loc r s is a ppr damage by cockchafe h ended in fact r ally unfavourable localities gene It i s l es s suited for stony or sti soil s...
Page 231 TI F I I AL F ORMA TI ON OF O OD r ge scale it takes operation s on a la much time and the planting is too expensive h e op r ation r e can be added plantin g manu r mans add s tu r f ashes pr...
Page 232 TI N IT H T AFF PLAN those with an extensive root system Th e cost depend s on the size of the pits P lanting with a peg is done in the cas of young plants which have not as developed side roots any length is specially adapted for the cultivation of dry localitie s with...
Page 233 TI F I I AL F ORMA TI ON O F O OD a re a may with a light plough or the hoe In such cases be used for the raising of a ﬁeld crop before planting P egs of v a rious shapes a re used such as th e ordinary planting pegs ( the planting dagge...
Page 235 TI F I I AL FO RMA TI ON O OD This m ethod di ers from planting with a peg in the shape h e planti a notch o f t g hol which is that of The tools h ing ordinarily used are the planting hatchet ( the notc...
Page 236 TI N HI N PLAN a pe is t notching spade but a much better sh at exhibited in r ont View side view section through It is perfectly straight with a sharp point which easily pene h e soil r ally trates into t In using this spade...
Page 237 TI F I I AL F ORMA TI ON O OD bent backward s thus raising and Opening out the e ges of th e ﬁrst notch ( then the plant is slipped in from the h e spad r d s the fa r blade towa o f the ﬁrs t notch...
Page 239 TI F I I AL F ORMA TI ON O F O OD slips are used only the lower portion i s inserted r emain s into ground of tr uncated slips only a sma l part r e s t r iking and a p r ope r above the surface r to ensu r ply and...
Page 240 TI N PLAN removing some of the bark of the layer below ground on the side of the parent tree arge numbers of layers are required the most suit able plan i s to produce stool s which send out num erous sho ots ach of these shoots is then bent back and fastened into the r ound h e r...
Page 241 CH A U RA L regeneration can take place by seed or by shoots h e subj and s uck ccordingly ct may divided into r ts r ation by seed is applicable to all species two pa egene r s applies only to bro a d leaved species that by shoots and sucke h e pow r oduction of conifers by s h oots is either...
Page 243 T URAL R TI ON O F O OD r ips r om the compartment system number of st r esp in som it will dealt with s parately r e not always clearly limits betw several systems a r th r e c d eﬁned as will be seen fu...
Page 244 I FO RM OMPAR whole r generation area this ho wever succeeds only in exceptional cases so that a s a rule two or even mor r s a r e r r ed to complete the regeneration consequenc regeneration proc r m of and sometimes more yea sulting in a...
Page 245 T URAL R TI O N O F O OD r eates Obstacles to successful regenera very such deviation c r io d of lif tion ither the trees are not in the best pe for the h e soil i s production of good seed in su ﬁcient quantity or t...
Page 247 T URAL R TI O N OF O O D the ground to shelter to the young crop and the soil If all the rest of the wo o d were removed at one cutting that the above ntioned shelter trees were suddenly broug from a crowded into a comparatively open position they r own by the ﬁr st gale...
Page 248 I FORM OMPAR a nd in others or undesirabl e in o thers one cutting su ﬁces r e required again two or even more a The period over which the preparatory stage extends com h er times as prises sometimes only one a few years at ot r e years...
Page 249 T URAL R TI ON O OD r epa r ato r y cuttings r equently is not quite ready for it the reg ration ar if is found necessary to make an additional cutting called this measure all trees a a rds for shelter o r the removed which are not required afterw further production of seed...
Page 251 TI ON O OD lighter one In the case of latter the distance of r trees may be governed only by the distance to which shelte the seed is naturally disseminated T he cover of the shelter wood should be as a s possible throughout even whenever the conditions a...
Page 252 I FO RM O MPAR really healthy groups of to form part of the wood ordinary underwood of other species must be r moved h is time forward rom t the regeneration area must be care a inst the removal a nd fully protected ag litter...
Page 253 T URAL R TI ON O F h e remov a l takes place depend s on various within whic considerations such as the following The preservation of a suitable degree of moisture in the soil i s ﬁrst importance wing r y stage to the action taken during the preparato...
Page 255 T URAL R TI ON O OD a l stage is generally several years Th e ﬁrst cutting in the ﬁn r op is two or three years old made when the young c oth ers following at similar interval s acco rding to requir a st cutting r ing ments...
Page 256 I F ORM OMPAR in the case of tender species in unfavourable localiti and wh re the obj ect i s to increase the si ze and value of the shelter trees in their roomy position In executing the fellings in this stage special care must be r owth taken to avoid inj uring the young g...
Page 257 T UR TI ON O F O OD a fter the remov a l of last shelter trees blanks ppreciable extent exist they must artiﬁcially ﬁlled up by a ps by planting strong plants on them some cases perh sowings a s been said a bove shows clearly that the success at h of natural regeneration by seed under a shelter...
Page 259 T UR TI ON O OD othing deﬁnit can be said regarding the breadth strips it depend s on the species and the loca condition s Tho se who advocate system say th ordinarily breadth sho uld no t exceed the height of the trees There is no limit to the length of the strips they need not be straight in fact they will frequently be curved...
Page 260 ROUP a nd by regenerating successive narrow bands around them is process i s continued until the several groups merg into each other The time required for the a ch woo completion of the proces s in e or compartment a n under the compartment system a nd considerably longer th...
Page 261 T URAL TI ON O OD retained or r moved requires careful consideration r opo sition general p it may said that advance growth which has stood under heavy shelter for more than years should be remov as it takes too long a period of time to recover after it has been expo sed to more light advance growth h...
Page 263 T URAL R TI O N O OD r emoved feet in height had better be If it i s less decided to retain it then fast growing species must be a tch it up planted around it which are likely to c r variety ancouve ouglas ﬁr ha s come much into...
Page 264 RO UP In mixed woods groups of dif erent species may require a tion at di rent times ering an additional for a j udicious selection of the g oups ﬁ to be taken in hand These may dem and erent treatment The degree of moisture poro sity...
Page 265 T URAL R TI ON O OD a s made its appearance r p r eparatory and growth h regula r e mad seeding cuttings a in selected spots so as to create r owth which form the centres of sub sequent groups of new g a tions Oper...
Page 267 T URAL R TI ON O F O OD a comparatively short space of time It follows that super a t it c a n be more e vision is easie and th ective all other things being equal than whe th e work is spread over a r of disj ointed groups or strips numbe...
Page 268 O MPAR ON O F O OD have a soil of a fairly uniform character h e group or selection sys opposite cond tions prevail r abl may be prefe same time it must not be over looked that drawback s the system can be liminated to a considerable ext...
Page 269 T URAL R TI ON O OD helter trees causes less d amage r ted to the yo ung crop as the material can be tran spo thro gh the parts of the wood not yet regenerated h e g r oup syst In summing up i t may be said that t is in its place where the condition s o f the locality or of the...
Page 271 T URAL R TI ON O F O OD The distances are also greater if the mother trees stand at a higher elevation than the regeneration ar The direction of the wind during the fall of the seed intro r eat element r tainty a s it can only in rare d uces a g...
Page 272 TI ON BY H O O uch prot ction is further increased if successive clearings do not adj oin each other but are separated by old er woods ometimes clearings represent patches situated in the middle of wo ods rrangem nts of this kind lead ever to a very complicated system o f management...
Page 273 T URAL R TI ON O F O OD a r mode of cutting is employed neck of the stool simil where both stool shoots and suckers are wanted If only the a tter a re desired the stump may b e removed and only the a rts of India roots left...
Page 275 T URAL R TI ON O F O OD less corky bark on the root neck besides if the shoots appear r e likely l ow down at or a little below the surface they are mo a nd thus ensure greater longevity to develop independent ro ots of the stool h ern count r ies...
Page 276 TI ON BY H O O h e m ain stem close to t or at a short distance from it latter metho d being preferable hoots spring from the cuts and these are again r one or mo re years h e desired size of the produce according to t pecies...
Page 277 CH A r ming a wood described in the various methods of fo previous chapters are applicable to both pure and mixed h e r e a r e r tain peculiarities in the woods however formation of mixed woods which it will be necessary to indicate the number of po ssible mixtures is very large...
Page 279 TI ON F O RMA O OD a new mixed wood If an wood exists consisting of r a nd a ha r dy species a tende is to created the former may be sown or plant d alone under the shelte wood then when...
Page 280 O OD a ngement of the cuttings during the ﬁn a l stage The arr depends on the req irements the new crop in several r ts of the wood sts present them selves tho se r importance must prevail r ees to be left for the ﬁnal cutting sho uld belong to The t r m species...
Page 281 TI ON O F M IX F ORMA O OD h ade bearing species a rranged in or where the species are separate groups nother instance the regeneration of ilver ﬁr and spruce r is favou r ed du r ing woods in the lack orest...
Page 283 TI O N F ORMA O OD or certain exotic species such as ouglas ﬁr itka spruce a ndis plicat bies gr lbertiana and o thers a rch at This underplanting had best be done in the case of l the age of years cotch pine at...
Page 284 CH A choice of method depends on numerous con sideration s a tters in reference To attempt a detailed exposition of these m r al m ethod s would not lead to any pr a ctical result to the seve ince after all the choice depend s on the local circumstances...
Page 285 H O I T H O D TI O N F ORMA cases where the other method was not likely to succeed reasons for this were that sowing was consider d to be more certain an d cheaper since it was generally the custom to use a nts too large transpl In the course of time...
Page 287 T H OD TI ON F ORMA ardy species which grow slowly d uring youth should be planted those of fast and early development be sown r able on other grounds direct if this be desi h ap The s of the root system i s also of importance pecies which dev...
Page 288 TI N PLAN growth of weed s or wh ere frost lifting may expected imilarly planting is far pref rable to direct sowing where a s in raw extremes of climate prevail such fro sty exposed l ocaliti a nting is al so prefer a ble steep slopes but in very stony soil direct sowing may becom e a nece ssity...
Page 289 T H O D TI ON F O RMA a n be done under the shelter of th e planting c old woo or it can follow a clear cutting natural regene a s of tion be done nder a s elter wood or on cleared are...
Page 291 T H O D TI O N F O RMA h od i s more complicated and di The met ﬁcult than r tiﬁcial regeneration hence it d mand s more skilful fore ste a rs produces many The intermittent nature seed ye r egard s the equalisation of the yield a nd the drawbacks as...
Page 292 I NA TI ON T H O D RAL M r egene r ation a h ich ea w for on e reason or another do not a ve to be pl a nted up become stocked and h it frequently happens that ruling sp cies shall be mixed with others...
Page 293 T H OD TI ON F ORMA ere it is d esirable that the standards should be seedling r ation m a y be ef and their regene ected by the seed falling naturally on the ground TI ON TI F I I A L TI ON TU RA L...
Page 296 N a wood has been established it will if left undis by outside in uences grow on and reach maturity the individual trees will however enter upon a lively struggle for r esults r ity of cases existence and the ultimate in the maj o ill meet only to a limited extent the obj ects for which the M oreover...
Page 297 O OD Pa rt I have been dealt with in of this volume while the r otection of the soil and growing wood against inj urious P rotection uences are dealt with in orest In this place only the impor tant points will be hortly a ted a l aspect of...
Page 299 CH A wood s require cial protection against external h ift for themselves h ey must be dangers until they can s clean and a pro er d nsity or composition of crop preserv ccordingly the subj ect will be divided into four paragraphs P RO T TI ON A...
Page 300 RNAL DAN a gainst ﬁre at all periods l though wood s require protection of their lif it i s pecially necessary during early youth Pr otection is by removing all inﬂammable matter r aces around the area and at suit a ble inter clearing ﬁre t al s in the interior...
Page 301 O O D ARLY YOU a ced established some time before the area to be protected is pl under cultivation or regeneration T he pecies of which wind aks consis should if possible vergreen and with dense crowns coming close to the ground avourit pecies are a nd spruce...
Page 303 O OD D UR ARLY YO U irect sowing is also done but planting with strong plants is r eferabl cause these have a better chance keeping pace with rest of crop r eady so far advanced t h at plants of If the original crop is al h e recruiting the same sp...
Page 304 IXT UR PROP O OD carried there by animals as swe estnuts acorns lnuts h ers r uce and ot ften sp cotch pine lime and elm also appear here their cultivation was not intended It would be a mistake to remove all such addition s r e very welcome in without distinction requently...
Page 305 CH A N the trees which compose a wood have become ciently large to close up and form a complete leaf canopy r al sources of inj ury disappear h has c seve ased h e trees to af ect t and dangers rom fro st and drought h ave r e is not so acute...
Page 307 O OD ARLY YOU h e principal roots rate to bark them and t or cover them with arth P R U N I NG r e the o bj ect of managem r es in the p r oduction nt cent r word s of valuabl...
Page 308 PRUN r uning may be extended to the removal of these advantag h es r to that of green ones as well P runing d ead bra m ay exercis an additional advantage in causing the bol grow more cyli drical ad of approaching shape of a...
Page 309 O OD ARLY YO U It is e ssential therefore that the wound should be clos d as quickly a s possible and made impermeabl to the pores of r e th r oug h the fungi and to water This is ef ected by natu r ovid...
Page 311 O OD ARLY YO U...
Page 312 T H I NN I N a l so fastened represents hler s pruning saw which is to a pole T he two last mentioned are specially recommended where the of a ladder is not pref h ich are so lar e that they are likely to be r oof cover...
Page 313 O OD ARLY YOU r ounded by higher from above though they a re already sur trees others have already been left behind to such an xtent h e di r ect enj oyment of that they are actually deprived of t h ey live on for a light in other word s they are suppressed...
Page 315 O OD ARLY YOU measures must be taken to preserve the fertility o f the r oﬁtable growing These considerations govern the mo st p r ticular case space in any pa It is conceivable that und certain conditions correct policy is to move all dead r essed r tion of the...
Page 316 IT ABL r ees per ac r e decr r om the number of t ases gradually f r al thousand s to a comparatively small number at seve maturity it follows that growing space increas s wi th advancing age though not evenly tatistics collected on this r e wood s...
Page 317 O OD ARLY YO U nder otherwise equal condition s the number of trees per acre increases with altitude at any rate up to a certain a tion B lack r est for t h e three elev The statistics of the a pproximately indicated as below region s howed the following proportion in t...
Page 319 O OD ARLY YOU regards obj ects of man agement it su ﬁces in r e to distinguish between practical ilvicultu following two cases P roduction of the great st quantity material h est quality In some cas two obj ects may realised by an identical t in o thers...
Page 320 T H I NN I N a se In the present c where quantity is the obj ect h e sp thinnings ho uld on the whole be heavy subj ect to t cial requir ments of the species and the preservation of a su ﬁci r owing space are v af canopy...
Page 321 O OD ARLY YOU erences in the breadth of the concen ric ring s must slight The timber mu st have a h gh degree of density B oles free from branches and non tapering are not produced if heavy thinnings are made at an arly age of the h e sam h e wood w...
Page 323 O OD ARLY YO U In the case of mixed woods it may often be n cessary to remove a domin ating t e of one sp cies cause it t atens r ess a tree of anot h e r speci h must be p r eserved to supp s whic...
Page 324 I PAL AD V AN T A T H I NN I N either by producing the g st possible quantity best possibl quality of produce in some cases both these obj cts may be combin r d t h e means of pres rving a suitabl mixtu case of mix...
Page 325 O OD ARLY YO U r ally be carried out in the per acre thinnings should gene presence of a competent fo only where the wood is r ed a s absol utely unifor ghout a sampl e may be prepa a guidance for woodmen and this only if the latt...
Page 327 TI MB O F OP O O D r tion the other hand the early isolation of a po h e case of many species trees has weighty drawbacks In t r iou sly af h e height growth may inj u ect t the trees r ee s maintain their side b r anches low do wn...
Page 328 I PAL FORM r e di a ccording to species and The procedu ers considerably the Obj ects manag ment T o meet the special requirements r able numb of each case a consid modiﬁcations have been a borated om e of t se comm nce with the isolation in r s du r ing the greater part of the...
Page 329 TI MB O OD a shelter wood O xcellent opportuniti s for realisation of t xtra increment due to an isolated position of a limit h elter number same d wood is r oﬁt thinned o ut by successive cuttings the remaining tree s p r ement by accelerated inc...
Page 331 T I MB O OD h at in t h is way about It is stimated t oak t s pe r eac h a diamete r in h ich a fully st cked ood t y would ach in about h is b r g r o wing and s h o r t g a quicke...
Page 332 TI O N O F O RK to rectify The main point is that almo st from ﬁrst r m the ﬁnal c r op thinning the trees likely to fo favou r ain r th r ultim at and t d fo purpose y should consist...
Page 336 IT I S RE E r actic h is ory and p ilvicultu as d ibed in t h ave b r ated by instances tak r om n illus r at r op important fo st t s grown in t h es sake it will be fo und us...
Page 337 H F OR T T R h yi r y good cha r coal ld s exc nt ﬁrewood and ve h val ue w h timber i s m uc ngth and d urability h o r t g r ai r avity wan t it is brittl...
Page 339 T T R H F OR r a rotation the total production of timber and ﬁrewo od unde h o uld be years follo wing If grown in crowded woods ch as a rul does not r e than of much mo it attain s a much greater age eech comm...
Page 340 maple silver ﬁr cotch pine larch and also spruce r ive best when ixed with b eech in fact this i s h almo st any species whic h t h r iv on localities suitabl h unde r for beech a subj ect dealt wit ach species r high forest...
Page 341 H F OR T T R r fou r to six w sprout aft bout pounds of nuts r acre r oad cast sowings and propor r pa r tial so r eceiv r ing les s fo nuts a cov hr e of t an inc...
Page 343 T T R H F OR r a r h e shade inj u r es species but it is if ever done unless t h e r mo r e valuable timber t r ees comm nced at the age of years r ding to locality h ey should at ﬁ...
Page 344 H ORNB r al and in resp ct of min r in the soil it is not h umus quit xacting as b oams sandy soils rich in r l s suit it b and ma it attains its full developm it is fo nd on dry soils thoug...
Page 345 T T R H F OR more rapidly than those time it stand s h in t h is r r oad leav xt to b spect a ongst b d sp cies may r place it in localities unsuited for be r nb h and oak am app...
Page 347 T T R H F O R timber is the most val uable the i digenous speci h ard it is eavy very durable and splits well it makes a good fuel It is us d for m any purposes in shipbuilding housebuilding impl...
Page 348 requires a soil which is deep at least fresh and fertile it accommodates itself to moist soil and i s r til not very s nsitive as regards inundations loamy soil s cause its highest d velopment but it i s also found on clay on sandy soil if it is su ciently moist the whole it is...
Page 349 T T R H F O R a te oak grown on lo These data refer to peduncul lands r oduction of sessile oak is slightly small d uction of oak on localiti the ﬁrs t quality i s small r ger on the III than hat of b...
Page 351 T T R H F OR r oak trees production also high forest with a soil r otection wood r ied high fo r est if trees large r and mod h t are wanted diamet rate heig standard s in coppice wood s answe r ated principally by sowing and planting The oak is regene...
Page 352 r ought artiﬁcially into the ground must frequently be b either a corn s have fallen r by lightly hoeing the soil after the r d s of swine through the woods driving he The seed trees r e removed quickly generally within a years afte r wise...
Page 353 T T R H F OR M any gall a tt a ck the oak wasps chieﬂy ill grown pollarded or hedgerow trees they are only harmful in nurseries M istletoe T he is found on the branches ungi are numero us o n oak but the forest r n eed no t be r ig h tened by them...
Page 355 T T R H F OR more shade in youth It likes moist air and i s storm r equi r es a deep porou s moist and fertile soil It is chieﬂy found in low land s near river s and in the bottom G ood loamy soils with or cool aspects of mountain valleys...
Page 356 ars in pure woods but o ing to its light foliage it r able localities is not suit d to so grown excep t very favou r mixing h other speci It is much bett r adapt d fo r nbeam especially be ch and al so ho It is frequently found...
Page 357 T T R H F OR r y bud s a nd young shoots this period by removing unnecessa is usually planted in pits r om late and r ly oung plants are very liable to su r osts hence h is lter i s useful however...
Page 359 T T R H FO R the wych elm has a broad r crown The root system consists h nume r ous side roots of a tap root wit at an advanced age h allow the syst m becomes somewhat mo It grows quicker h er slo wer than ash r eac h...
Page 360 T NU T M ay to June and falls almost The se d ripens in ately it keeps its g rminating pow r only for a short time and must sown at once germinate it i s h er consid er d good seed are about ds to the...
Page 361 H F OR T T R chestnut is said to be more durable as fencing posts than r d s r ee is liable to become shaky young oak fterwa the t and the timber is less valuabl than oak timber for building in carpentry staves for wine casks...
Page 363 T T R H F OR are liabl to be eaten by mice if sown in autumn they should r e tender early as the young seedlings a r os h estnu h oul d be cove r against late f The c d with ches o f so...
Page 364 MAPL a more is somewhat preferred to that The timber of the syc of the orway maple M iddl r ope and G oes higher in mountains than the be up to feet in the Br itain Introduced into M inor and Caucasus G oes urope h than t h e sycamore...
Page 365 T T R H F OR a rs a nd maples reach a large diamete an d an age more ycamore prod uces f ull crop s seed after the age of r lie r r e not ve r y years orway maple a few year s ea they a...
Page 367 T T R H FOR demanding tree standing about on a par with but some r es moist ai r r s from sno w what b low oak It requi and su h ich b r and rime ak the branches r equi r es a poro us lder moist soil...
Page 368 speci specially ith ash birch or oak generally occupying the moister parts the woods lder is mostly treated as coppice either by itself or as r d s underwood un er standa It i s also found in high forest r e b ut g r e with other in that case rarely pu...
Page 369 T T R H F OR prevented by covering the space between plants a ck into the plants actually lifted must be promptly put b ground h e drying C onsiderable dang r may threaten alder from t the subsoil o wing to a change in the l vel of the ground uch danger must as far as practicable...
Page 371 T T R H F OR B i r ch begins producing full crops of se d wh n about r s and som years imes r e heavy h ole r oductive annually and a the rep r y g r eat r ried r by s ed is v...
Page 372 commenc s falling soon afterwards and until ebruary maintain s its germinating pow r for months It i s r ed go od seed if r cent conside germinate pound of h ing like clean se d contains som seeds r ect sowing i s r a r ely d one Br oadcast so ings would...
Page 373 T T R H F O R Older trees which are also liable in some localities in urope to su er from the burrows of a bark beetle B irch has no serious enemies amongst fungi produces witches broo ro t r ot white r uned...
Page 375 H F OR T T R r th r ope latitude frica orth and up to r ts orth It i s planted in all pa G reat r itain and I r r ally alo land banks of riv r es h ikes f loose soil...
Page 376 PO PLAR M aterial for ﬁne basket work i s obtained by cutting annually eproduction is pow rful but the st ool s do not h an p a ps last for more t years and frequently not so long if cut r i s p r opagated by cuttings as described fo r the The osie...
Page 377 T T R H F OR a nd cig a r cases rough cooperage inner work of carriages manufacture of matches paper charco l is used in the manufacture of gunpowder The bark is used in a ves dyeing ( for the latter purpose also the le tanning of latitude orth...
Page 379 T T R H F O R ﬂy of black poplar f is a g r anc r owing t h e t r r ious clear hind in many plac s to g ing m goat ed in wood Often in company wit h e lea cies produc...
Page 380 h at fros The lim e is som an d r e s r ought still mo nsitive agains t d It i s r s a s h ade bear a ligh t d mand othe practically it occupies a middle po sition in this It is fairly r m ﬁ...
Page 381 T T R H F O R r itain the s d rarely rip ns in it is generally r opagat r s ( see pag d by laye b ut also by se h e Continen r ipens in Obtained from t seed ctob...
Page 383 H F OR T T R months nuts must be w ll cove d with earth an d r otect d again st mic r ot T he young plants must be p d against cattle r ab r ed by i l is not Often seriously inj u The cater h in...
Page 384 I N I A AND ALNU ommenc s bearing full crops of seed at the about eed rip n s in ctob r to r om r uary onwa r d s fall s f eed remain s good fo r s it sho uld show a g r minating perc ntage...
Page 385 H F O R T T R G rows q h es ickly whil young stem divid s into branc r eaches a h at a m height ight o f feet r s and more and a gr at age r om t h e stool r uit when good...
Page 387 T T R H F O R r own aintains a co ical shap until the height growth has b n compl top b s ﬂat in f e stand r ound ing t s it extend s almost down h alf fully stock d wo ods to n...
Page 388 I L V r i s excellently suited for pure woods ilver ﬁ it has a r h ead to an advanc nse foliage and maintains a cov h us under hich a thick gro mos s spri gs up r ving a suitabl h e soil gree of m oistur...
Page 389 T T R H F O R r such a wood h is is not planting should if t r tiﬁciall h e youn g availabl it m ust r om lat r ly f r es will su er f possibly al so r om d r oug h t cially a scal...
Page 391 T T R H F OR on a l arg scale To m t it the diseased stem s shoul d be r ly as possibl cut out as ea other fungi h e case may be m entioned but th y do less damage than in t r uce of sp...
Page 392 N OR r uc r ally in The sp is fo nd natu urop e of latitud n to t at about It is a tre of the mountains ing found up to an elevation of about r oc r th r adually ding no it g...
Page 393 T T R H F O R pruce grows at ﬁrst rather slowly b ut faster than silve r s old its heig h t growt h b r apid ﬁr comes h eig h t of the indigenous and it ultimat ly r s the g r ees...
Page 395 T T R H F OR as seedlings ith or without ball s of earth or as r an sp ants r one plant may be pla ed into r al pl an anting spot or som times seve s are put to a tte called the l...
Page 396 IT KA needles chief devourer however is t r ucti on which has caused widespread dest r uce h is gall cripples the shoots which a re also exte ely hollowed out T he beetles and its alli are most d estructive insects They specially follow caterpillar attacks a nd are perhaps more d r eaded than any ot h er forest insects...
Page 397 T T R H F OR orway spruce It is said to make excellent light oars r ted by the which purpose it is impo dmiralty orth merica fro m California to laska r s somewhat from late frosts when young but no t much frost hard...
Page 399 T T R H F OR demanding standing in t s respect between l arch and oak The degree to hich it will bear shade is very limited but it h on the climate in which it is grown r ef pends muc It p dry to moist air...
Page 400 ra ge pr a s follows ction is unde a rotation of r own The III quality is very low cotch pin can be g on very inferior soil ull seed years commence when the tree has passed an age r e heavy year s they a...
Page 401 H F OR a s high forest with clear cotch pine is generally treated cutting exceptionally only under the sh elter wo od systems r ly suited for standa r ds in hig h fo r est It is fai as w ll as in a shelter...
Page 403 T T R r ms eedlings are d d by wire larv millipedes al so by chaf r grubs oung plants r ed by r oot inj u eding bark b r ous wee d by num cially r ge n r e d which kills a la The n...
Page 404 T R I AN P I N be removed a s speedily as possible hence dry wood cuttings a re mor quent in cotch pine woods than in any other BL A T R I AN PI N ustrian pin e yields a light soft wood which i s very r avity rich in turpentine...
Page 405 T T R height growth i s somewhat slower than that of the cotc pine and it do es not reach the same h ight at any rat when r oot system is strong grown beyond its natural home a nd imilar to that of cotch pine The volume growth is...
Page 407 T T R H F O R The tree develops in ngland a straight stem and it grows r ian pine very rapidly in height much more so than the h o ws r eaches a much g r eater h eight far as exp rience s r e desi r able tree for planting in...
Page 408 T H P I N YMO U a ble than the timber of the purpos It i s less valu cotch pine and if gr wn in this country has about the same value as spruce timber The W eymouth pine i s a nativ of the eastern p arts of r e it is found between latitudes orth...
Page 409 H F OR T T R G rown in crowded feet in height frequently seen r oduces a cylindrical stem h en g wood s it p but w own in t open it tapers considerably Its volume growth is consider ably greater th an that cotch pine The root system is...
Page 411 T T R H F OR r ely frost ha r d and stands drought r is n ot equal to t h at of h pine timbe cotc r is mode r ately heavy h e timb r age sp ciﬁc gravity r ly w r y d...
Page 412 r s from d r ought r dy against frost in its natural is ha h at f r om lat r ost s in home but liable to su er some r outing in sp r ing land s owing to its very early sp It is h av r ee...
Page 413 T T R H FOR r s and the pin volume increment it stands between the ﬁ r ag r a r otation of The ave nual production r gi r t h m may be placed at cubic f r ovid ra lly suited to is plant...
Page 415 T T R H F OR r with transplants aft done ith two year old s dlings r y lin es stood ars in lder r e r a r plan ly us ritain thod of planting i s r ally notchi P lanting must gene pit pla...
Page 416 h ese dange r s are much greater in co untri and t s where it r tiﬁcia r ch is esp ly introduced The la cially attacked h ich hollows out by minut r al the needles and s late y has don damage...
Page 417 H F OR T T R iberian larch i s said to be satisﬁed with r ow ve r y st r aight ss good soil to g and to less light r olese la r ch h and manding than the other r ly in t h is count r y that it i s bound to su prouts so ea...
Page 419 T T R H F OR of about It s ems to avoid sti clay and also poor h alk soils sandy soils as w ll as c mountains of ontana with a comparatively small r y atmosp h ere rainfall of about s and a d ouglas...
Page 420 D O U should be pla ted only on thoroughly heltered localities r m ﬁrm speci best in the middl of woods con sisting of a sto wher the trees ell sh ltered until th ach a con h t and h av r op r r oot system heig...
Page 421 T T R H FOR height growth of about inches on an annual average r icts about on e half of that in the coast dist r any circumstances a s far as xperienc goes at present r ows all ouglas ﬁr if planted in suitable localities outg...
Page 423 T T R H F OR r ees g r o ittle is known about this beyond that n in r itain produce seed f r eely r rea r ing which has be n us d fo r al home it is said t o younger plantations In its natu commenc...
Page 424 r and la r ch is to gro ougl as ﬁ et apart r ection r ly r in each di larch will give a valuable ea turn h a limit leavin g a pur wood of ouglas ﬁ or one mixed r ch trees h e latter a r e not attacked by canker number of la...
Page 425 r ee is likely to su r f r om r nal dange r s ow much the t r exp r ie r it is ritain pend on furt r tain that it su r s som r om late fro sts w h ile young what f h a r dy aft but is...
Page 427 a rd s it seem s to be free from insect attacks afterw a nd d o damage The tree i s suited for high forest It has also been a nting o a k a rch m ended fo r under cotch pine and l U GA TI ANA...
Page 428 ﬁ ﬁ s ﬁr...
Page 429 I ND...
Page 431 I ND l pr ﬁx r ﬁr ﬁ ﬁ...
Page 432 I ND ﬁ ﬁx l pr ﬁ...
Page 433 I ND ﬁ V OLUM...

This manual is also suitable for:

Superserver as-2021a-32r+f

Supermicro SuperServer AS-2021A-T2R+F User Manual

Quick Links

Related Manuals for Supermicro SuperServer AS-2021A-T2R+F

Summary of Contents for Supermicro SuperServer AS-2021A-T2R+F

This manual is also suitable for: