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FLIR bXX series User Manual

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User's manual
Publ. No.
T559059
Revision
a460
Language
English (EN)
Issue date
July 1, 2010
FLIR bXX series
FLIR iXX series

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Summary of Contents for FLIR bXX series

  • Page 1 User’s manual FLIR bXX series FLIR iXX series Publ. No. T559059 Revision a460 Language English (EN) Issue date July 1, 2010...
  • Page 3 User’s manual Publ. No. T559059 Rev. a460 – ENGLISH (EN) – July 1, 2010...
  • Page 4 FLIR Systems or this warranty will not apply. FLIR Systems will, at its option, repair or replace any such defective product free of charge if, upon inspection, it proves to be defective in material or workmanship and provided that it is returned to FLIR Systems within the said one-year period.
  • Page 5 NOT FAULT TOLERANT. THE SOFTWARE IS NOT FAULT TOLERANT. FLIR Systems AB HAS INDEPENDENTLY DETERMINED ■ HOW TO USE THE SOFTWARE IN THE DEVICE, AND MS HAS RELIED UPON FLIR Systems AB TO CONDUCT SUFFICIENT TESTING TO DETERMINE THAT THE SOFTWARE IS SUITABLE FOR SUCH USE.
  • Page 6 Publ. No. T559059 Rev. a460 – ENGLISH (EN) – July 1, 2010...

  • Page 7: Table Of Contents

    Table of contents Warnings & Cautions ........................Notice to user ..........................Customer help ..........................Documentation updates ......................... Important note about this manual ....................Quick Start Guide ........................... Parts lists ............................Contents of the transport case ..................... List of accessories ........................ Camera parts and indicators ......................
  • Page 8 15.3 Setting an insulation alarm ....................16 Working with files ........................... 16.1 Saving an image ........................16.2 Opening an image ........................ 16.3 Deleting an image ......................... 16.4 Deleting all images ....................... 16.5 Adding a voice annotation to an image ................16.6 Playing back a voice annotation ..................
  • Page 9 24.1 Important note ........................24.2 Typical field investigations ....................24.2.1 Guidelines ......................24.2.1.1 General guidelines ................24.2.1.2 Guidelines for moisture detection, mold detection & detection of water damages .................. 24.2.1.3 Guidelines for detection of air infiltration & insulation deficiencies ... 24.2.2 About moisture detection ..................
  • Page 10 Rain showers ......................25.7.3 Emissivity ......................25.7.4 Reflected apparent temperature ................25.7.5 Object too far away ....................26 About FLIR Systems ........................26.1 More than just an infrared camera ..................26.2 Sharing our knowledge ......................26.3 Supporting our customers ....................
  • Page 11 28.2.1.2 Step 2: Determining the emissivity ........... 28.3 Reflected apparent temperature ..................28.4 Distance ..........................28.5 Relative humidity ........................28.6 Other parameters ........................29 History of infrared technology ...................... 30 Theory of thermography ........................ 30.1 Introduction ........................... 30.2 The electromagnetic spectrum .................... 30.3 Blackbody radiation ......................
  • Page 12 Publ. No. T559059 Rev. a460 – ENGLISH (EN) – July 1, 2010...

  • Page 13: Warnings & Cautions

    Do not attach the batteries directly to a car’s cigarette lighter socket, unless a ■ specific adapter for connecting the batteries to a cigarette lighter socket is provided by FLIR Systems. Do not connect the positive terminal and the negative terminal of the battery ■...
  • Page 14 1 – Warnings & Cautions Do not make holes in the battery with objects. Do not hit the battery with a ■ hammer. Do not step on the battery, or apply strong impacts or shocks to it. Do not put the batteries in or near a fire, or into direct sunlight. When the battery ■...

  • Page 15: Notice To User

    As with most electronic products, this equipment must be disposed of in an environ- mentally friendly way, and in accordance with existing regulations for electronic waste. Please contact your FLIR Systems representative for more details. Publ. No. T559059 Rev. a460 – ENGLISH (EN) – July 1, 2010...

  • Page 16: Customer Help

    Customer help General For customer help, visit: http://support.flir.com Submitting a To submit a question to the customer help team, you must be a registered user. It question only takes a few minutes to register online. If you only want to search the knowledge- base for existing questions and answers, you do not need to be a registered user.

  • Page 17: Documentation Updates

    To access the latest manuals and notifications, go to the Download tab at: http://support.flir.com It only takes a few minutes to register online. In the download area you will also find the latest releases of manuals for our other products, as well as manuals for our historical and obsolete products.

  • Page 18: Important Note About This Manual

    Important note about this manual General FLIR Systems issues generic manuals that cover several cameras within a model line. This means that this manual may contain descriptions and explanations that do not apply to your particular camera model. NOTE FLIR Systems reserves the right to discontinue models, software, parts or accessories, and other items, or to change specifications and/or functionality at any time without prior notice.

  • Page 19: Quick Start Guide

    Quick Start Guide Procedure Follow this procedure to start immediately: Charge the battery for four hours before you start the camera for the first time. You can charge the battery in the stand-alone battery charger, or by ■ connecting the power supply cable directly to the battery. When the green light of the battery condition indicator is continuous, ■...

  • Page 20: Parts Lists

    User documentation CD-ROM ■ Warranty extension card or Registration card ■ FLIR Systems reserves the right to discontinue models, parts or accessories, and NOTE ■ other items, or to change specifications at any time without prior notice. The inclusion of some items is dependent on camera model.

  • Page 21: List Of Accessories

    T910750 Power supply, incl. multi plugs ■ NOTE FLIR Systems reserves the right to discontinue models, parts or accessories, and other items, or to change specifications at any time without prior notice. Publ. No. T559059 Rev. a460 – ENGLISH (EN) – July 1, 2010...

  • Page 22: Camera Parts And Indicators

    Camera parts and indicators Camera parts Figure 10782603;a2 Explanation This table explains the figure above: Focus ring on the infrared lens. Digital camera lamp. Digital camera. Digital camera lamp. Lens cap. ® USB-A connector (to connect a USB memory stick, a Bluetooth USB micro adapter, or another USB device, to the camera).
  • Page 23 8 – Camera parts and indicators Laser pointer. Trigger to save images. Cover for the battery compartment, including release button. NOTE The laser pointer may not be enabled in all camera models. Publ. No. T559059 Rev. a460 – ENGLISH (EN) – July 1, 2010...

  • Page 24: Keypad And Lcd

    8 – Camera parts and indicators Keypad and LCD Figure 10782703;a2 Explanation This table explains the figure above: Protective rubber frame for the LCD. LCD. Navigation pad. Left selection button. This button is context-sensitive. Camera/archive button. This button is used to switch between the camera mode and the archive mode.

  • Page 25: Power Indicator

    8 – Camera parts and indicators Power indicator General The camera has two power modes. An indicator shows these modes. Figure 10782203;a2 Explanation This table explains the indicator: Signal type Explanation The green light is continuous. The camera is on. The green light is off.

  • Page 26: Battery Condition Indicator

    8 – Camera parts and indicators Battery condition indicator General The battery has a battery condition indicator. Figure 10715703;a3 Explanation This table explains the battery condition indicator: Type of signal Explanation The green light flashes two times per The battery is being charged. second.

  • Page 27: Laser Pointer

    8 – Camera parts and indicators Laser pointer General The camera has a laser pointer. When the laser pointer is on, you can see a laser dot approximately 38 mm (1.5 in.) below the target. In some camera models, the position of the laser dot is indicated on the screen.
  • Page 28 8 – Camera parts and indicators Laser warning A laser warning label with the following information is attached to the camera: label 10743603;a2 Laser rules and Wavelength: 635 nm. Max. output power: 1 mW. regulations This product complies with 21 CFR 1040.10 and 1040.11 except for deviations pur- suant to Laser Notice No.

  • Page 29: Screen Elements

    Screen elements General You use screen elements – tools, menus, and selections in dialog boxes – to control the camera program. This section describes the typical set of screen elements. Figure 10782803;a1 Explanation This table explains the figure above: Menu system. Measurement results table, including information about the emissivity value.
  • Page 30 9 – Screen elements Limit value for an isotherm in the temperature scale. Limit value for the temperature scale. Temperature span indicator. Indicator for automatic or manual mode (A/M). Current function for the right selection button. Tool to change the maximum temperature. Temperature scale.

  • Page 31: Connectors And Storage Media

    Connectors and storage media 10.1 Power connector General You connect a power cable to the camera to charge the battery ■ to use the power supply to operate the camera. ■ Figure 10601403;a2 SEE ALSO For information on the pin configuration, see section 21 – Pin configurations on page 68.

  • Page 32: Usb Connectors

    10 – Connectors and storage media 10.2 USB connectors General You use the USB connectors in either of the following situations: To move images from the camera memory to a computer. In this case, use the ■ small connector (USB Mini-B). To connect an USB memory stick to the camera.

  • Page 33: Inserting And Removing Microsd™ Memory Cards

    10 – Connectors and storage media 10.3 Inserting and removing MicroSD™ Memory Cards Figure 10782303;a4 Procedure Follow this procedure to insert and remove a MicroSD™ Memory Card: Open the rubber cover that protects the card slot. Push the MicroSD™ Memory Card firmly into the card slot, until a click is heard.

  • Page 34: Pairing Bluetooth® Devices

    ® Pairing Bluetooth devices General ® Before you can use a Bluetooth device with the camera, you need to pair the devices. Procedure Follow this procedure: ® Insert a Bluetooth USB micro adapter into the large USB connector (USB- Turn on the camera. To display the main menu, push Menu.

  • Page 35: Fetching Data From External Extech® Meters

    ® for Extech meters ® This support contact is for Extech meters only. For technical support for infrared cameras, go to http://flir.custhelp.com. ® This procedure assumes that you have paired the Bluetooth devices. For instruc- NOTE ■ tions on how to do that, see section 11 – Pairing Bluetooth® devices on page 22 For more information about products from Extech Instruments, go to ■...
  • Page 36 12 – Fetching data from external Extech® meters ® On the meter, enable Bluetooth mode. Refer to the user documentation for the meter for information on how to do this. On the meter, choose the quantity that you want to use (voltage, current, resistance, etc.).

  • Page 37: Typical Moisture Measurement And Documentation Procedure

    12 – Fetching data from external Extech® meters 12.1 Typical moisture measurement and documentation procedure ® General The following procedure can form the basis for other procedures using Extech meters and infrared cameras. Procedure Follow this procedure: Use the infrared camera to identify any potential damp areas behind walls and ceilings.

  • Page 38: Choosing Camera Modes And Adjusting Images

    Choosing camera modes and adjusting images 13.1 Choosing the camera mode General You can use the camera in three different camera modes: As an infrared camera. In this mode, the camera works as an ordinary infrared ■ camera and can display and save only infrared images. As a digital camera.

  • Page 39: Adjusting The Camera Focus

    13 – Choosing camera modes and adjusting images 13.2 Adjusting the camera focus Figure 10782103;a1 Procedure Follow this procedure to adjust the camera focus: Hold the camera tightly in your hand. Hold the focus ring with the other hand. Do one of the following: Turn the focus ring counter-clockwise for far focus.

  • Page 40: Auto-Adjusting An Image

    13 – Choosing camera modes and adjusting images 13.3 Auto-adjusting an image General For the best image brightness and contrast, auto-adjust the camera before you measure a temperature and save an image. Procedure If the letter M is displayed in the bottom right corner of the screen, push Man./Auto once to auto-adjust the image.

  • Page 41: Adjusting An Image Manually

    13 – Choosing camera modes and adjusting images 13.4 Adjusting an image manually General If you want to analyze an object with a wide range of temperatures, you can use the colors of the scale on different parts of the object. In the left image below, a correct analysis of the circled cable is difficult to make if you only auto-adjust the image.

  • Page 42: Increasing Or Decreasing The Maximum Temperature Level

    13 – Choosing camera modes and adjusting images 13.4.1 Increasing or decreasing the maximum temperature level Procedure Follow this procedure to increase or decrease the maximum temperature level: Do one of the following: If the letter A is displayed in the bottom right corner of the screen, push ■...

  • Page 43: Increasing Or Decreasing The Minimum Temperature Level

    13 – Choosing camera modes and adjusting images 13.4.2 Increasing or decreasing the minimum temperature level Procedure Follow this procedure to increase or decrease the minimum temperature level: Do one of the following: If the letter A is displayed in the bottom right corner of the screen, push ■...

  • Page 44: Changing Both The Maximum And Minimum Temperature Levels At The Same Time

    13 – Choosing camera modes and adjusting images 13.4.3 Changing both the maximum and minimum temperature levels at the same time Procedure Follow this procedure to change both the maximum and minimum temperature at the same time: Do one of the following: If the letter A is displayed in the bottom right corner of the screen, push ■...

  • Page 45: Working With Measurements

    Working with measurements 14.1 Measuring a temperature using a spotmeter General You can measure the temperature using a fixed spotmeter in the middle of the screen. Procedure Follow this procedure to measure the temperature using a fixed spotmeter: To display the main menu, push Menu. To select Measurement, push the navigation pad up/down.

  • Page 46: Measuring A Temperature Using An Area

    14 – Working with measurements 14.2 Measuring a temperature using an area General You can measure the minimum or maximum temperature using a fixed area in the middle of the screen. Procedure Follow this procedure to measure the minimum or maximum temperature using a fixed area: To display the main menu, push Menu.

  • Page 47: Working With Alarms

    Working with alarms 15.1 Setting a color alarm General A color alarm assigns a special color to all temperatures above or below a set tem- perature level. Procedure Follow this procedure to set a color alarm: To display the main menu, push Menu. To select Measurement, push the navigation pad up/down.

  • Page 48: Setting A Dewpoint Alarm

    15 – Working with alarms 15.2 Setting a dewpoint alarm General The dewpoint can be regarded as the temperature at which the humidity in a certain volume of air will condense as liquid water. At this point, the relative humidity is 100%. When you have set a number of environmental parameters, the Dewpoint alarm can detect these areas that have a risk of condensation and warn you that there may be a deficiency in the building structure.

  • Page 49: Setting An Insulation Alarm

    15 – Working with alarms 15.3 Setting an insulation alarm General The Insulation alarm can detect areas where there may be an insulation deficiency in the building. It will trigger when the insulation level falls below a preset value of the energy leakage through a wall.

  • Page 50: Working With Files

    Working with files 16.1 Saving an image General You can save one image or more images to the MicroSD™ Memory Card. Formatting For best performance, memory cards should be formatted to the FAT (FAT16) file memory cards system. Using FAT32-formatted memory cards may result in inferior performance. To format a memory card to FAT (FAT16), follow this procedure: Insert the memory card into a card reader that is connected to your com- puter.
  • Page 51 When you save an image to the camera memory, the measured value is also NOTE ■ saved. You can save 1000+ images to the MicroSD™ Memory Card. ■ The image file format is compatible with FLIR Reporter 8.3 and later ■ Publ. No. T559059 Rev. a460 – ENGLISH (EN) – July 1, 2010...

  • Page 52: Opening An Image

    16 – Working with files 16.2 Opening an image General When you save an image, it is stored on the MicroSD™ Memory Card. To display the image again, you can open the image from the MicroSD™ Memory Card. Procedure Follow this procedure to open an image: To open the image archive, push the camera/archive button.

  • Page 53: Deleting An Image

    16 – Working with files 16.3 Deleting an image General You can delete an image from the MicroSD™ Memory Card. Procedure Follow this procedure to delete an image: To open the image archive, push the camera/archive button. Do one of the following: To delete the currently displayed image, push Options, then select ■...

  • Page 54: Deleting All Images

    16 – Working with files 16.4 Deleting all images General You can delete all images from the MicroSD™ Memory Card. Procedure Follow this procedure to delete all images: To open the image archive, push the camera/archive button. To display thumbnails of all images, push the navigation pad up. Push Options.

  • Page 55: Adding A Voice Annotation To An Image

    The recording can be played back in the camera, and in image analysis and reporting software from FLIR Systems. The reason for using annotations is to make reporting and post-processing more efficient by providing essential information about the image.

  • Page 56: Playing Back A Voice Annotation

    16 – Working with files 16.6 Playing back a voice annotation General You can play back a voice annotation that you have added to an image. NOTE The camera does not have a loudspeaker. To play back a voice annotation, you must use the headset.

  • Page 57: Deleting A Voice Annotation

    16 – Working with files 16.7 Deleting a voice annotation General You can delete a voice annotation that you have added to an image. Procedure Follow this procedure: To open the image archive, push the camera/archive button. Do one of the following: To find the image for which you want to delete the voice annotation, ■...

  • Page 58: Moving Images To A Pc

    Method 1: Move images when the camera is operating as a USB disk. With this ■ method you do not need to install FLIR QuickReport on your computer. Method 2: Move images when the camera is connected to a PC using FLIR ■ QuickReport. FLIR QuickReport contains features for image handling and creation of PDF reports.
  • Page 59 16 – Working with files Method 2 Follow this procedure to move images to a PC with FLIR QuickReport: To display the main menu, push Menu. To select Settings, push the navigation pad up/down. To enable the Settings menu, push Select.

  • Page 60: Copying An Image To An External Usb Drive

    16 – Working with files 16.9 Copying an image to an external USB drive General You can copy an image from the MicroSD™ Memory Card to an external USB drive. Procedure Follow this procedure: To open the image archive, push the camera/archive button. To display thumbnails of all images, push the navigation pad up.

  • Page 61: Copying All Images To An External Usb Drive

    16 – Working with files 16.10 Copying all images to an external USB drive General You can copy all images from the MicroSD™ Memory Card to an external USB drive. Procedure Follow this procedure: To open the image archive, push the camera/archive button. Push Options.

  • Page 62: Changing Camera Settings

    Changing camera settings 17.1 Changing the colors General You can change the colors that the camera uses to display different temperatures. A different set of colors can make it easier to analyze an image. Procedure Follow this procedure to change the color: To display the main menu, push Menu.

  • Page 63: Changing The Emissivity

    17 – Changing camera settings 17.2 Changing the emissivity General Emissivity is a property that specifies how much radiation an object emits, compared with the radiation of a theoretical reference object at the same temperature (called a ‘blackbody’). The radiation from an object is the sum of what it emits and what it reflects.
  • Page 64 17 – Changing camera settings Do one of the following: Do the following: ■ 1 Use the joystick to select Emissivity. 2 Push Select. 3 Use the joystick to change the value. 4 Push Select to confirm. Do the following: ■...

  • Page 65: Changing The Reflected Apparent Temperature

    17 – Changing camera settings 17.3 Changing the reflected apparent temperature General For very accurate measurements, you must set the reflected apparent temperature. The reflected apparent temperature compensates for the radiation from the surround- ings reflected by the object into the camera. If the emissivity is low and the object temperature differs significantly from the reflected apparent temperature, it is especially important to set the reflected apparent temper- ature correctly.
  • Page 66 17 – Changing camera settings SEE ALSO For more information about how to measure reflected apparent tempetature, see the ISO standard DIS 18434-1 and the ASTM standard ASTM E1862-97. Publ. No. T559059 Rev. a460 – ENGLISH (EN) – July 1, 2010...

  • Page 67: Changing The External Optics Correction

    17 – Changing camera settings 17.4 Changing the external optics correction General For very accurate measurements, you must set the following: External optics temperature, i.e., the temperature of any protective windows etc. ■ that are set up between the camera and the object of interest. If no protective window or protective shield is used, this value is irrelevant.

  • Page 68: Changing Other Camera Settings

    17 – Changing camera settings 17.5 Changing other camera settings General Camera settings affect images and how the camera operates. Applicability The procedure below is applicable to these settings: Digital camera lamp (to enable or disable the lamp used for the digital camera, ■...

  • Page 69: Power System

    Power system 18.1 Installing the battery NOTE Use a clean, dry cloth to remove any water or moisture on the battery before you install Procedure Follow this procedure to install the battery: To open the battery compartment cover, push down the locking mechanism. 10600803;a1 Push the battery into the battery compartment.

  • Page 70: Removing The Battery

    18 – Power system 18.2 Removing the battery Procedure Follow this procedure to remove the battery: To open the battery compartment cover, push down the locking mechanism. 10600803;a1 Pull out the battery from the battery compartment. 10601003;a1 Push the battery compartment cover into position. 10601103;a1 Publ.

  • Page 71: Charging The Battery

    18 – Power system 18.3 Charging the battery NOTE You must charge the battery for four hours before you use the camera for the first time. General You must charge the battery when the message Battery voltage is low is displayed on the screen.

  • Page 72: Using The Combined Power Supply And Battery Charger To Charge The Battery When It Is Inside The Camera

    18 – Power system 18.3.1 Using the combined power supply and battery charger to charge the battery when it is inside the camera NOTE For brevity, the ‘combined power supply and battery charger’ is called ‘power supply’ below. Procedure Follow this procedure to use the power supply to charge the battery when it is inside the camera: To open the battery compartment cover, push down the locking mechanism.

  • Page 73: Using The Combined Power Supply And Battery Charger To Charge The Battery When It Is Outside The Camera

    18 – Power system 18.3.2 Using the combined power supply and battery charger to charge the battery when it is outside the camera NOTE For brevity, the ‘combined power supply and battery charger’ is called ‘power supply’ below. Procedure Follow this procedure to use the power supply to charge the battery when it is outside the camera: Put the battery on a flat surface.

  • Page 74: Using The Two-Bay Battery Charger To Charge The Battery

    18 – Power system 18.3.3 Using the two-bay battery charger to charge the battery General The two-bay battery charger gives you the option to charge two batteries at once. Procedure Follow this procedure to use the two-bay battery charger to charge the battery: Put the battery in the two-bay battery charger.

  • Page 75: Turning On The Camera

    18 – Power system 18.4 Turning on the camera Procedure Push the on/off button to turn on the camera. Publ. No. T559059 Rev. a460 – ENGLISH (EN) – July 1, 2010...

  • Page 76: Turning Off The Camera

    18 – Power system 18.5 Turning off the camera Procedure Push and hold the on/off button for more than 0.5 seconds to turn off the camera. NOTE If you do not use the camera, the power switches off after a time period that you can set in the menu system.

  • Page 77: Cleaning The Camera

    Cleaning the camera 19.1 Camera housing, cables, and other items Liquids Use one of these liquids: Warm water ■ A weak detergent solution ■ Equipment A soft cloth Procedure Follow this procedure: Soak the cloth in the liquid. Twist the cloth to remove excess liquid. Clean the part with the cloth.

  • Page 78: Infrared Lens

    19 – Cleaning the camera 19.2 Infrared lens Liquids Use one of these liquids: 96% isopropyl alcohol. ■ A commercial lens cleaning liquid with more than 30% isopropyl alcohol. ■ Equipment Cotton wool Procedure Follow this procedure: Soak the cotton wool in the liquid. Twist the cotton wool to remove excess liquid.

  • Page 79: Technical Data

    Technical data For technical data, refer to the datasheets on the user documentation CD-ROM that comes with the camera. Publ. No. T559059 Rev. a460 – ENGLISH (EN) – July 1, 2010...

  • Page 80: Pin Configurations

    Pin configurations Power connector 10601903;a1 Signal name +12 V Publ. No. T559059 Rev. a460 – ENGLISH (EN) – July 1, 2010...

  • Page 81: Dimensions

    Dimensions 22.1 Camera Figure 10781603;a1 Publ. No. T559059 Rev. a460 – ENGLISH (EN) – July 1, 2010...
  • Page 82 22 – Dimensions Figure 10781803;a2 Publ. No. T559059 Rev. a460 – ENGLISH (EN) – July 1, 2010...
  • Page 83 22 – Dimensions Figure 10781903;a1 Publ. No. T559059 Rev. a460 – ENGLISH (EN) – July 1, 2010...
  • Page 84 22 – Dimensions Figure 10782003;a2 Publ. No. T559059 Rev. a460 – ENGLISH (EN) – July 1, 2010...

  • Page 85: Battery

    22 – Dimensions 22.2 Battery Figure 10602103;a2 NOTE Use a clean, dry cloth to remove any water or moisture on the battery before you install Publ. No. T559059 Rev. a460 – ENGLISH (EN) – July 1, 2010...

  • Page 86: Two-Bay Battery Charger

    22 – Dimensions 22.3 Two-bay battery charger Figure 10602203;a3 Use a clean, dry cloth to remove any water or moisture on the battery before you NOTE ■ put it in the battery charger. The two-bay battery charger is not included in the standard package. ■...

  • Page 87: Two-Bay Battery Charger With Battery

    22 – Dimensions 22.4 Two-bay battery charger with battery Figure 10602303;a3 Use a clean, dry cloth to remove any water or moisture on the battery before you NOTE ■ put it in the battery charger. The two-bay battery charger is not included in the standard package. ■...

  • Page 88: Application Examples

    Application examples 23.1 Moisture & water damage General It is often possible to detect moisture and water damage in a house by using an in- frared camera. This is partly because the damaged area has a different heat conduc- tion property and partly because it has a different thermal capacity to store heat than the surrounding material.

  • Page 89: Faulty Contact In Socket

    23 – Application examples 23.2 Faulty contact in socket General Depending on the type of connection a socket has, an improperly connected wire can result in local temperature increase. This temperature increase is caused by the reduced contact area between the connection point of the incoming wire and the socket , and can result in an electrical fire.

  • Page 90: Oxidized Socket

    23 – Application examples 23.3 Oxidized socket General Depending on the type of socket and the environment in which the socket is installed, oxides may occur on the socket's contact surfaces. These oxides can lead to locally increased resistance when the socket is loaded, which can be seen in an infrared image as local temperature increase.

  • Page 91: Insulation Deficiencies

    23 – Application examples 23.4 Insulation deficiencies General Insulation deficiencies may result from insulation losing volume over the course of time and thereby not entirely filling the cavity in a frame wall. An infrared camera allows you to see these insulation deficiencies because they either have a different heat conduction property than sections with correctly installed insu- lation, and/or show the area where air is penetrating the frame of the building.

  • Page 92: Draft

    23 – Application examples 23.5 Draft General Draft can be found under baseboards, around door and window casings, and above ceiling trim. This type of draft is often possible to see with an infrared camera, as a cooler airstream cools down the surrounding surface. NOTE When you are investigating draft in a house, there should be sub-atmospheric pressure in the house.

  • Page 93: Introduction To Building Thermography

    Introduction to building thermography 24.1 Important note All camera functions and features that are described in this section may not be sup- ported by your particular camera configuration. 24.2 Typical field investigations 24.2.1 Guidelines As will be noted in subsequent sections there are a number of general guidelines the user should take heed of when carrying out building thermography inspection.

  • Page 94: Guidelines For Moisture Detection, Mold Detection & Detection Of Water Damages

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.2.1.2 Guidelines for moisture detection, mold detection & detection of water damages Building defects related to moisture and water damages may only show up when ■ heat has been applied to the surface, e.g. from the sun. The presence of water changes the thermal conductivity and the thermal mass of ■...

  • Page 95: About Moisture Detection

    24 – Introduction to building thermography A difference in temperature between the inside and the outside of 10–15°C (18–27°F) ■ is recommended. Inspections can be carried out at a lower temperature difference, but will make the analysis of the infrared images somewhat more difficult. Avoid direct sunlight on a part of a building structure—e.g.

  • Page 96: Safety Precautions

    24 – Introduction to building thermography Although a basic understanding of the construction of low-slope commercial roofs is desirable when carrying out a roof thermography inspection, expert knowledge is not necessary. There is a large number of different design principles for low-slope com- mercial roofs—both when it comes to material and design—and it would be impossible for the infrared inspection person to know them all.

  • Page 97: Commented Building Structures

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.2.3.3 Commented building structures This section includes a few typical examples of moisture problems on low-slope commercial roofs. Structural drawing Comment 10553603;a2 Inadequate sealing of roof membrane around conduit and ventilation ducts leading to local leakage around the conduit or duct.

  • Page 98: Commented Infrared Images

    24 – Introduction to building thermography Structural drawing Comment 10553803;a2 Drainage channels located too high and with too low an inclination. Some water will remain in the drainage channel after rain, which may lead to local leakage around the channel. 10553903;a2 Inadequate sealing between roof membrane and roof outlet leading to local leakage around the roof...
  • Page 99 24 – Introduction to building thermography Infrared inspections of roofs with nonabsorbent insulations, common in many single- ply systems, are more difficult to diagnose because patterns are more diffuse. This section includes a few typical infrared images of moisture problems on low-slope commercial roofs: Infrared image Comment...

  • Page 100: Moisture Detection (2): Commercial & Residential Façades

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.2.4 Moisture detection (2): Commercial & residential façades 24.2.4.1 General information Thermography has proven to be invaluable in the assessment of moisture infiltration into commercial and residential façades. Being able to provide a physical illustration of the moisture migration paths is more conclusive than extrapolating moisture meter probe locations and more cost-effective than large intrusive test cuts.
  • Page 101 24 – Introduction to building thermography Structural drawing Comment 10554503;a2 Rain hits the façade at an angle and penetrates the plaster through cracks. The water then follows the inside of the plaster and leads to frost erosion. 10554603;a2 Rain splashes on the façade and penetrates the plaster and masonry by absorption, which eventu- ally leads to frost erosion.

  • Page 102: Commented Infrared Images

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.2.4.3 Commented infrared images This section includes a few typical infrared images of moisture problems on commercial & residential façades. Infrared image Comment 10554703;a1 Improperly terminated and sealed stone veneer to window frame and missing flashings has resulted in moisture infiltration into the wall cavity and inte- rior living space.

  • Page 103: Commented Building Structures

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.2.5.2 Commented building structures This section includes a few typical examples of moisture problems on decks and balconies. Structural drawing Comment 10555203;a2 Improper sealing of paving and membrane to roof outlet, leading to leakage during rain. 10555103;a2 No flashing at deck-to-wall connection, leading to rain penetrating the concrete and insulation.
  • Page 104 24 – Introduction to building thermography Structural drawing Comment 10555003;a2 Water has penetrated the concrete due to inade- quately sized drop apron and has led to concrete disintegration and corrosion of reinforcement. SECURITY RISK! 10554903;a2 Water has penetrated the plaster and underlying masonry at the point where the handrail is fastened to the wall.

  • Page 105: Commented Infrared Images

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.2.5.3 Commented infrared images This section includes a few typical infrared images of moisture problems on decks and balconies. Infrared image Comment 10555303;a1 Improper flashing at balcony-to-wall connections and missing perimeter drainage system resulted in moisture intrusion into the wood framing support structure of the exterior walkway balcony of a loft complex.

  • Page 106: Commented Infrared Images

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.2.6.2 Commented infrared images This section includes a few typical infrared images of plumbing breaks & leaks. Infrared image Comment 10555503;a1 Moisture migration tracking along steel joist chan- nels inside ceiling of a single family home where a plumbing line had ruptured.
  • Page 107 24 – Introduction to building thermography Infrared image Comment 10555703;a1 The infrared image of this vinyl-sided 3-floor apartment house clearly shows the path of a seri- ous leak from a washing machine on the third floor, which is completely hidden within the wall. 10555803;a1 Water leak due to improper sealing between floor drain and tiles.

  • Page 108: Air Infiltration

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.2.7 Air infiltration 24.2.7.1 General information Due to the wind pressure on a building, temperature differences between the inside and the outside of the building, and the fact that most buildings use exhaust air terminal devices to extract used air from the building, a negative pressure of 2–5 Pa can be expected.
  • Page 109 24 – Introduction to building thermography Structural drawing Comment 10552303;a2 Insulation deficiencies in an intermediate flow due to improperly installed fiberglass insulation batts. The air infiltration enters the room from behind the cornice. 10552603;a2 Air infiltration in a concrete floor-over-crawl-space due to cracks in the brick wall façade.

  • Page 110: Commented Infrared Images

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.2.7.3 Commented infrared images This section includes a few typical infrared images of details of building structures where air infiltration has occurred. Infrared image Comment 10552703;a1 Air infiltration from behind a skirting strip. Note the typical ray pattern.

  • Page 111: Insulation Deficiencies

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.2.8 Insulation deficiencies 24.2.8.1 General information Insulation deficiencies do not necessarily lead to air infiltration. If fiberglass insulation batts are improperly installed air pockets will form in the building structure. Since these air pockets have a different thermal conductivity than areas where the insulation batts are properly installed, the air pockets can be detected during a building ther- mography inspection.
  • Page 112 24 – Introduction to building thermography Structural drawing Comment 10553103;a2 Insulation deficiencies due to improper installation of insulation batts around an attic floor beam. Cool air infiltrates the structure and cools down the in- side of the ceiling. This kind of insulation deficiency will show up as dark areas on an infrared image.

  • Page 113: Commented Infrared Images

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.2.8.3 Commented infrared images This section includes a few typical infrared images of insulation deficiencies. Infrared image Comment 10553303;a1 Insulation deficiencies in an intermediate floor structure. The deficiency may be due to either missing insulation batts or improperly installed in- sulations batts (air pockets).
  • Page 114 24 – Introduction to building thermography Infrared image Comment 10553503;a1 Insulation deficiencies in an intermediate floor structure. The deficiency may be due to either missing insulation batts or improperly installed in- sulations batts (air pockets). Publ. No. T559059 Rev. a460 – ENGLISH (EN) – July 1, 2010...

  • Page 115: Theory Of Building Science

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.3 Theory of building science 24.3.1 General information The demand for energy-efficient constructions has increased significantly in recent times. Developments in the field of energy, together with the demand for pleasant indoor environments, have resulted in ever-greater significance having to be attached to both the function of a building’s thermal insulation and airtightness and the efficiency of its heating and ventilation systems.

  • Page 116: The Effects Of Testing And Checking

    24 – Introduction to building thermography the results of measurements, there are special requirements in terms of the skills and experience of those taking the measurements, e.g. by means of authorization by a national or regional standardization body. 24.3.2 The effects of testing and checking It can be difficult to anticipate how well the thermal insulation and airtightness of a completed building will work.

  • Page 117: Sources Of Disruption In Thermography

    24 – Introduction to building thermography For the user the important thing is that the finished product fulfills the promised ■ requirements in terms of the building’s thermal insulation and airtightness. For the individual, buying a house involves a considerable financial commitment, and the purchaser therefore wants to know that any defects in the construction will not in- volve serious financial consequences or hygiene problems.
  • Page 118 24 – Introduction to building thermography The temperature changes associated with variations in the U value are generally gradual and symmetrically distributed across the surface. Variations of this kind do of course occur at the angles formed by roofs and floors and at the corners of walls. Temperature changes associated with air leaks or insulation defects are in most cases more evident with characteristically shaped sharp contours.

  • Page 119: Surface Temperature And Air Leaks

    24 – Introduction to building thermography Any wet surfaces, e.g. as a result of surface condensation, have a definite effect on heat transfer at the surface and the surface temperature. Where there is moisture on a surface, there is usually some evaporation which draws off heat, thus lowering the temperature of the surface by several degrees.
  • Page 120 24 – Introduction to building thermography In a steady wind flow, Bernoulli’s Law applies: where: Air density in kg/m ρ Wind velocity in m/s Static pressure in Pa and where: denotes the dynamic pressure and p the static pressure. The total of these pressures gives the total pressure.
  • Page 121 24 – Introduction to building thermography 10551803;a1 Figure 24.3 Distribution of resultant pressures on a building’s enclosing surfaces depending on wind effects, ventilation and internal/external temperature difference. 1: Wind direction; T : Thermodynamic air temper- ature outdoors in K; T : Thermodynamic air temperature indoors in K.
  • Page 122 24 – Introduction to building thermography 10551903;a1 Figure 24.4 Stress concentration factor (C) distributions for various wind directions and wind velocities (v) relative to a building. Wind conditions can vary substantially over time and between relatively closely situ- ated locations. In thermography, such variations can have a clear effect on the mea- surement results.
  • Page 123 24 – Introduction to building thermography part. At a certain height there is a neutral zone where the pressures on the inside and outside are the same, see the figure on page 112. This differential pressure may be described by the relationship: Air pressure differential within the structure in Pa Δp 9.81 m/s...
  • Page 124 24 – Introduction to building thermography 10552003;a1 Figure 24.5 Distribution of pressures on a building with two openings and where the external temperature is lower than the internal temperature. 1: Neutral zone; 2: Positive pressure; 3: Negative pressure; h: Distance from the neutral zone in meters. The position of the neutral zone may vary, depending on any leaks in the building.

  • Page 125: Measuring Conditions & Measuring Season

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.3.5 Measuring conditions & measuring season The foregoing may be summarized as follows as to the requirements with regard to measuring conditions when carrying out thermographic imaging of buildings. Thermographic imaging is done in such a way that the disruptive influence from ex- ternal climatic factors is as slight as possible.
  • Page 126 24 – Introduction to building thermography In practice the method involves the following: Laboratory or field tests are used to produce an expected temperature distribution in the form of typical or comparative infrared images for common wall structures, com- prising both defect-free structures and structures with in-built defects. Examples of typical infrared images are shown in section 24.2 –...

  • Page 127: Humidity & Dew Point

    24 – Introduction to building thermography Deviations and irregularities in the appearance of the infrared image often indicate insulation defects. There may obviously be considerable variations in the appearance of infrared images of structures with insulation defects. Certain types of insulation defects have a characteristic shape on the infrared image.

  • Page 128: Definition Of Dew Point

    24 – Introduction to building thermography Figure 24.7 A: Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit; B: Maximum amount of water in gr/ft (at sea level) 86.0 13.30 68.0 7.58 50.0 4.12 32.0 2.12 84.2 12.60 66.2 7.14 48.2 3.86 30.2 1.96 82.4 11.93 64.4 6.73...

  • Page 129: Introduction

    24 – Introduction to building thermography UK Thermography Association c/o British Institute of Nondestructive Testing 1 Spencer Parade Northampton NN1 5AA United Kingdom Tel: +44 (0)1604 630124 Fax: +44 (0)1604 231489 24.3.8.2 Introduction Over the last few years the equipment, applications, software, and understanding connected with thermography have all developed at an astonishing rate.

  • Page 130: Quantitative Appraisal Of Thermal Anomalies

    24 – Introduction to building thermography range of thermal anomalies can be found in BINDT Guides to thermal imaging (Infrared Thermography Handbook; Volume 1, Principles and Practise, Norman Walker, ISBN 0903132338, Volume 2, Applications, A. N. Nowicki, ISBN 090313232X, BINDT, 2005). 24.3.8.3.1 Requirements A thermographic survey to demonstrate continuity of insulation, areas of thermal...
  • Page 131 24 – Introduction to building thermography A value for f of 0.75 is considered appropriate across new building as the upper CRsi end usage is not a factor considered in testing for ‘Continuity of Insulation’, or ‘Thermal Bridging’. However, when considering refurbished or extended buildings, for example swimming pools, internal surveys may need to account for unusal circumstances.
  • Page 132 24 – Introduction to building thermography Example for lightweight built-up cladding with defective Good area Failing area insulation Outside temperature in ℃ Inside surface temperature in ℃ 19.1 15.0 Outside surface temperature in ℃ Surface factor from IP17/01 0.95 0.75 Critical external surface temperature factor, after IP17/01 0.92 Insulation thickness to give this level of performance, mm...

  • Page 133: Conditions And Equipment

    24 – Introduction to building thermography used value of 0.1% of the building exposed surface area is generally accepted as the maximum combined defect area allowable to comply with the Building Regulations. This represents one square metre in every thousand. 24.3.8.4.4 Measuring surface temperature Measurement of surface temperature is the function of the infrared imaging system.

  • Page 134: Survey And Analysis

    24 – Introduction to building thermography Necessary surfaces free from direct solar radiation and the residual effects of past ■ solar radiation. This can be checked by comparing the surface temperatures of opposite sides of the building. No precipitation either just prior to or during the survey. ■...

  • Page 135: Reporting

    24 – Introduction to building thermography The viewing angle is nearly perpendicular to the surface being imaged. Interfering ■ sources of infrared radiation such as lights, heat emitters, electric conductors, re- flective elements are minimised. The method of analysis will depend somewhat on analysis software used, but the key stages are as follows: Produce an image of each anomaly or cluster of anomalies.
  • Page 136 24 – Introduction to building thermography Type, extent and position of each observed defect. ■ Results of any supplementary measurements and investigations. ■ Reports should be indexed and archived by thermographers. ■ 24.3.8.7.1 Considerations and limitations The choice between internal and external surveys will depend on: Access to the surface.

  • Page 137: Disclaimer

    24 – Introduction to building thermography 24.4 Disclaimer 24.4.1 Copyright notice Some sections and/or images appearing in this chapter are copyrighted to the follow- ing organizations and companies: FORMAS—The Swedish Research Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences ■ and Spatial Planning, Stockholm, Sweden ITC—Infrared Training Center, Boston, MA, United States ■...

  • Page 138: Introduction To Thermographic Inspections Of Electrical Installations

    Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 25.1 Important note All camera functions and features that are described in this section may not be sup- ported by your particular camera configuration. Electrical regulations differ from country to country. For that reason, the electrical procedures described in this section may not be the standard of procedure in your particular country.

  • Page 139: General Equipment Data

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations and for the climatic zones. The measurement periods may also differ depending on the type of plant to be inspected, whether they are hydroelectric, nuclear, coal-based or oil-based plants. In the industry the inspections are—at least in Nordic countries with clear seasonal differences—carried out during spring or autumn or before longer stops in the oper- ation.

  • Page 140: Inspection

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations The more the IR camera operator knows about the equipment that he or she is about to inspect, the higher the quality of the inspection. But it is virtually impossible for an IR thermographer to have detailed knowledge about all the different types of equipment that can be controlled.

  • Page 141: Priority

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations The classification of the defects gives a more detailed meaning that not only takes into account the situation at the time of inspection (which is certainly of great impor- tance), but also the possibility to normalize the over-temperature to standard load and ambient temperature conditions.

  • Page 142: Control

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations However, the most common result of the identification and classification of the detected faults is a recommendation to repair immediately or as soon as it is practically possible. It is important that the repair crew is aware of the physical principles for the identifica- tion of defects.

  • Page 143: Measurement Technique For Thermographic Inspection Of Electrical Installations

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 25.3 Measurement technique for thermographic inspection of electrical installations 25.3.1 How to correctly set the equipment A thermal image may show high temperature variations: 10712803;a4 Figure 25.2 Temperature variations in a fusebox In the images above, the fuse to the right has a maximum temperature of +61°C (+142°F), whereas the one to the left is maximum +32°C (+90°F) and the one in the middle somewhere in between.
  • Page 144 25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations to be in for the moment. It might be so that you measure heat, which has been con- ducted over some distance, whereas the ‘real’ hot spot is hidden from you. An example is shown in the image below.

  • Page 145: Comparative Measurement

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 25.3.3 Comparative measurement For thermographic inspections of electrical installations a special method is used, which is based on comparison of different objects, so-called measurement with a reference. This simply means that you compare the three phases with each other. This method needs systematic scanning of the three phases in parallel in order to assess whether a point differs from the normal temperature pattern.

  • Page 146: Normal Operating Temperature

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 10713303;a4 Figure 25.7 A profile (line) in an infrared image and a graph displaying the increasing temperature 25.3.4 Normal operating temperature Temperature measurement with thermography usually gives the absolute temperature of the object. In order to correctly assess whether the component is too hot, it is necessary to know its operating temperature, that is, its normal temperature if we consider the load and the temperature of its environment.

  • Page 147: Classification Of Faults

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations The two left phases are considered as normal, whereas the right phase shows a very clear excess temperature. Actually, the operating temperature of the left phase is +68°C (+154°F), that is, quite a substantial temperature, whereas the faulty phase to the right shows a temperature of +86°C (+187°F).
  • Page 148 25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations Excess temperatures measured directly on the faulty part are usually divided into three categories relating to 100% of the maximum load. < 5°C (9°F) The start of the overheat condi- tion. This must be carefully monitored.

  • Page 149: Reporting

    The program, which has been used for creating the report page shown below, is called FLIR Reporter. It is adapted to several types of infrared cameras from FLIR Systems. A professional report is often divided into two sections: Front pages, with facts about the inspection, such as: ■...
  • Page 150 25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 10713603;a3 Figure 25.10 A report example Publ. No. T559059 Rev. a460 – ENGLISH (EN) – July 1, 2010...

  • Page 151: Different Types Of Hot Spots In Electrical Installations

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 25.5 Different types of hot spots in electrical installations 25.5.1 Reflections The thermographic camera sees any radiation that enters the lens, not only originating from the object that you are looking at, but also radiation that comes from other sources and has been reflected by the target.

  • Page 152: Inductive Heating

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 10713803;a3 Figure 25.12 An infrared image of a circuit breaker 25.5.3 Inductive heating 10713903;a3 Figure 25.13 An infrared image of hot stabilizing weights Eddy currents can cause a hot spot in the current path. In cases of very high currents and close proximity of other metals, this has in some cases caused serious fires.

  • Page 153: Varying Cooling Conditions

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 10714003;a3 Figure 25.14 Examples of infrared images of load variations The image to the left shows three cables next to each other. They are so far apart that they can be regarded as thermally insulated from each other. The one in the middle is colder than the others.

  • Page 154: Resistance Variations

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 25.5.6 Resistance variations Overheating can have many origins. Some common reasons are described below. Low contact pressure can occur when mounting a joint, or through wear of the mate- rial, for example, decreasing spring tension, worn threads in nuts and bolts, even too much force applied at mounting.
  • Page 155 25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 10714303;a3 Figure 25.17 Overheating in a circuit breaker The overheating of this circuit breaker is most probably caused by bad contact in the near finger of the contactor. Thus, the far finger carries more current and gets hotter. The component in the infrared image and in the photo is not the same, however, it is similar).

  • Page 156: Disturbance Factors At Thermographic Inspection Of Electrical Installations

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 25.6 Disturbance factors at thermographic inspection of electrical installations During thermographic inspections of different types of electrical installations, distur- bance factors such as wind, distance to object, rain or snow often influence the measurement result.

  • Page 157: Distance To Object

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations snow or rain and reliable measurement is no longer possible. This is mainly because a heavy snowfall as well as heavy rain is impenetrable to infrared radiation and it is rather the temperature of the snowflakes or raindrops that will be measured. 25.6.3 Distance to object This image is taken from a helicopter 20 meters (66 ft.) away from this faulty connec-...

  • Page 158: Object Size

    The reason for this effect is that there is a smallest object size, which gives correct temperature measurement. This smallest size is indicated to the user in all FLIR Sys- tems cameras. The image below shows what you see in the viewfinder of camera model 695.
  • Page 159 25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations as well, strongly lowering the reading. In the above case, where we have a point- shaped object, which is much hotter than the surroundings, the temperature reading will be too low. 10714703;a3 Figure 25.21 Image from the viewfinder of a ThermaCAM 695 This effect is due to imperfections in the optics and to the size of the detector elements.

  • Page 160: Practical Advice For The Thermographer

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 25.7 Practical advice for the thermographer Working in a practical way with a camera, you will discover small things that make your job easier. Here are five of them to start with. 25.7.1 From cold to hot You have been out with the camera at +5°C (+41°F).

  • Page 161: Reflected Apparent Temperature

    25 – Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 25.7.4 Reflected apparent temperature You are in a measurement situation where there are several hot sources that influence your measurement. You need to have the right value for the reflected apparent tem- perature to input into the camera and thus get the best possible correction.

  • Page 162: About Flir Systems

    10 L (2.6 US gallon) jar with liquid nitrogen. To the left of the oscilloscope the Polaroid attachment (6 kg/13 lb.) can be seen. RIGHT: FLIR i7 from 2009. Weight: 0.34 kg (0.75 lb.), including the battery.

  • Page 163: More Than Just An Infrared Camera

    26.1 More than just an infrared camera At FLIR Systems we recognize that our job is to go beyond just producing the best infrared camera systems. We are committed to enabling all users of our infrared camera systems to work more productively by providing them with the most powerful camera–software combination.

  • Page 164: A Few Images From Our Facilities

    26 – About FLIR Systems 26.4 A few images from our facilities 10401303;a1 Figure 26.2 LEFT: Development of system electronics; RIGHT: Testing of an FPA detector 10401403;a1 Figure 26.3 LEFT: Diamond turning machine; RIGHT: Lens polishing Publ. No. T559059 Rev. a460 – ENGLISH (EN) – July 1, 2010...
  • Page 165 26 – About FLIR Systems 10401503;a1 Figure 26.4 LEFT: Testing of infrared cameras in the climatic chamber; RIGHT: Robot used for camera testing and calibration Publ. No. T559059 Rev. a460 – ENGLISH (EN) – July 1, 2010...

  • Page 166: Glossary

    Glossary Term or expression Explanation absorption (absorption factor) The amount of radiation absorbed by an object relative to the received radiation. A number between 0 and 1. atmosphere The gases between the object being measured and the camera, normally air. autoadjust A function making a camera perform an internal image correc- tion.
  • Page 167 27 – Glossary Term or expression Explanation external optics Extra lenses, filters, heat shields etc. that can be put between the camera and the object being measured. filter A material transparent only to some of the infrared wavelengths. Field of view: The horizontal angle that can be viewed through an IR lens.
  • Page 168 27 – Glossary Term or expression Explanation palette The set of colors used to display an IR image. pixel Stands for picture element. One single spot in an image. radiance Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time, area and angle (W/m /sr) radiant power...
  • Page 169 27 – Glossary Term or expression Explanation transmission (or transmittance) factor Gases and materials can be more or less transparent. Transmis- sion is the amount of IR radiation passing through them. A number between 0 and 1. transparent isotherm An isotherm showing a linear spread of colors, instead of cover- ing the highlighted parts of the image.

  • Page 170: Thermographic Measurement Techniques

    Thermographic measurement techniques 28.1 Introduction An infrared camera measures and images the emitted infrared radiation from an object. The fact that radiation is a function of object surface temperature makes it possible for the camera to calculate and display this temperature. However, the radiation measured by the camera does not only depend on the tem- perature of the object but is also a function of the emissivity.

  • Page 171: Finding The Emissivity Of A Sample

    28 – Thermographic measurement techniques 28.2.1 Finding the emissivity of a sample 28.2.1.1 Step 1: Determining reflected apparent temperature Use one of the following two methods to determine reflected apparent temperature: 28.2.1.1.1 Method 1: Direct method Look for possible reflection sources, considering that the incident angle = reflection angle (a = b).
  • Page 172 28 – Thermographic measurement techniques Measure the radiation intensity (= apparent temperature) from the reflecting source using the following settings: Emissivity: 1.0 ■ ■ You can measure the radiation intensity using one of the following two methods: 10589003;a2 Figure 28.3 1 = Reflection source Note: Using a thermocouple to measure reflected apparent temperature is not recom- mended for two important reasons: A thermocouple does not measure radiation intensity...

  • Page 173: Step 2: Determining The Emissivity

    28 – Thermographic measurement techniques Measure the apparent temperature of the aluminum foil and write it down. 10727003;a2 Figure 28.4 Measuring the apparent temperature of the aluminum foil 28.2.1.2 Step 2: Determining the emissivity Select a place to put the sample. Determine and set reflected apparent temperature according to the previous procedure.

  • Page 174: Reflected Apparent Temperature

    50%. 28.6 Other parameters In addition, some cameras and analysis programs from FLIR Systems allow you to compensate for the following parameters: Atmospheric temperature – i.e. the temperature of the atmosphere between the ■...

  • Page 175: History Of Infrared Technology

    History of infrared technology Before the year 1800, the existence of the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum wasn't even suspected. The original significance of the infrared spectrum, or simply ‘the infrared’ as it is often called, as a form of heat radiation is perhaps less obvious today than it was at the time of its discovery by Herschel in 1800.
  • Page 176 29 – History of infrared technology however, who was the first to recognize that there must be a point where the heating effect reaches a maximum, and that measurements confined to the visible portion of the spectrum failed to locate this point. 10398903;a1 Figure 29.2 Marsilio Landriani (1746–1815) Moving the thermometer into the dark region beyond the red end of the spectrum,...
  • Page 177 29 – History of infrared technology 10399103;a1 Figure 29.3 Macedonio Melloni (1798–1854) Thermometers, as radiation detectors, remained unchallenged until 1829, the year Nobili invented the thermocouple. (Herschel’s own thermometer could be read to 0.2 °C (0.036 °F), and later models were able to be read to 0.05 °C (0.09 °F)). Then a breakthrough occurred;...
  • Page 178 29 – History of infrared technology The improvement of infrared-detector sensitivity progressed slowly. Another major breakthrough, made by Langley in 1880, was the invention of the bolometer. This consisted of a thin blackened strip of platinum connected in one arm of a Wheatstone bridge circuit upon which the infrared radiation was focused and to which a sensitive galvanometer responded.

  • Page 179: Theory Of Thermography

    Theory of thermography 30.1 Introduction The subjects of infrared radiation and the related technique of thermography are still new to many who will use an infrared camera. In this section the theory behind ther- mography will be given. 30.2 The electromagnetic spectrum The electromagnetic spectrum is divided arbitrarily into a number of wavelength re- gions, called bands, distinguished by the methods used to produce and detect the radiation.

  • Page 180: Blackbody Radiation

    Such cavity radiators are commonly used as sources of radiation in temperature reference standards in the laboratory for calibrating thermo- graphic instruments, such as a FLIR Systems camera for example. Publ. No. T559059 Rev. a460 – ENGLISH (EN) – July 1, 2010...

  • Page 181: Planck's Law

    30 – Theory of thermography If the temperature of blackbody radiation increases to more than 525°C (977°F), the source begins to be visible so that it appears to the eye no longer black. This is the incipient red heat temperature of the radiator, which then becomes orange or yellow as the temperature increases further.

  • Page 182: Wien's Displacement Law

    30 – Theory of thermography ➲ The factor 10 is used since spectral emittance in the curves is expressed in Watt/m , μm. Planck’s formula, when plotted graphically for various temperatures, produces a family of curves. Following any particular Planck curve, the spectral emittance is zero at λ...
  • Page 183 30 – Theory of thermography μm. Thus, a very hot star such as Sirius (11 000 K), emitting bluish-white light, radiates with the peak of spectral radiant emittance occurring within the invisible ultraviolet spectrum, at wavelength 0.27 μm. 10399403;a1 Figure 30.5 Wilhelm Wien (1864–1928) The sun (approx.

  • Page 184: Stefan-Boltzmann's Law

    30 – Theory of thermography 10327203;a4 Figure 30.6 Planckian curves plotted on semi-log scales from 100 K to 1000 K. The dotted line represents the locus of maximum radiant emittance at each temperature as described by Wien's displacement law. 1: Spectral radiant emittance (W/cm (μm));...

  • Page 185: Non-Blackbody Emitters

    30 – Theory of thermography 10399303;a1 Figure 30.7 Josef Stefan (1835–1893), and Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906) Using the Stefan-Boltzmann formula to calculate the power radiated by the human body, at a temperature of 300 K and an external surface area of approx. 2 m , we obtain 1 kW.
  • Page 186 30 – Theory of thermography For opaque materials τ = 0 and the relation simplifies to: λ Another factor, called the emissivity, is required to describe the fraction ε of the radiant emittance of a blackbody produced by an object at a specific temperature. Thus, we have the definition: The spectral emissivity ε...

  • Page 187: Infrared Semi-Transparent Materials

    30 – Theory of thermography 10401203;a2 Figure 30.8 Spectral radiant emittance of three types of radiators. 1: Spectral radiant emittance; 2: Wavelength; 3: Blackbody; 4: Selective radiator; 5: Graybody. 10327303;a4 Figure 30.9 Spectral emissivity of three types of radiators. 1: Spectral emissivity; 2: Wavelength; 3: Blackbody;...
  • Page 188 30 – Theory of thermography some of it arrives at the other surface, through which most of it escapes; part of it is reflected back again. Although the progressive reflections become weaker and weaker they must all be added up when the total emittance of the plate is sought. When the resulting geometrical series is summed, the effective emissivity of a semi- transparent plate is obtained as: When the plate becomes opaque this formula is reduced to the single formula:...

  • Page 189: The Measurement Formula

    The measurement formula As already mentioned, when viewing an object, the camera receives radiation not only from the object itself. It also collects radiation from the surroundings reflected via the object surface. Both these radiation contributions become attenuated to some extent by the atmosphere in the measurement path.
  • Page 190 31 – The measurement formula or, with simplified notation: where C is a constant. Should the source be a graybody with emittance ε, the received radiation would consequently be εW source We are now ready to write the three collected radiation power terms: 1 –...
  • Page 191 31 – The measurement formula This is the general measurement formula used in all the FLIR Systems thermographic equipment. The voltages of the formula are: Figure 31.2 Voltages Calculated camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature i.e. a voltage that can be directly converted into true requested object temperature.
  • Page 192 5 volts, the resulting curve would have been very much the same as our real curve extrapolated beyond 4.1 volts, pro- vided the calibration algorithm is based on radiation physics, like the FLIR Systems algorithm. Of course there must be a limit to such extrapolations.
  • Page 193 31 – The measurement formula 10400603;a2 Figure 31.3 Relative magnitudes of radiation sources under varying measurement conditions (SW camera). 1: Object temperature; 2: Emittance; Obj: Object radiation; Refl: Reflected radiation; Atm: atmosphere radiation. Fixed parameters: τ = 0.88; T = 20°C (+68°F); T = 20°C (+68°F).
  • Page 194 31 – The measurement formula 10400703;a2 Figure 31.4 Relative magnitudes of radiation sources under varying measurement conditions (LW camera). 1: Object temperature; 2: Emittance; Obj: Object radiation; Refl: Reflected radiation; Atm: atmosphere radiation. Fixed parameters: τ = 0.88; T = 20°C (+68°F); T = 20°C (+68°F).

  • Page 195: Emissivity Tables

    Emissivity tables This section presents a compilation of emissivity data from the infrared literature and measurements made by FLIR Systems. 32.1 References Mikaél A. Bramson: Infrared Radiation, A Handbook for Applications, Plenum press, N.Y. William L. Wolfe, George J. Zissis: The Infrared Handbook, Office of Naval Research, Department of Navy, Washington, D.C.

  • Page 196: Tables

    32 – Emissivity tables 32.3 Tables Figure 32.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3: Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6: Reference 3M type 35 Vinyl electrical < 80 Ca.
  • Page 197 32 – Emissivity tables Aluminum roughened 3 µm 0.28 Aluminum roughened 10 µm 0.18 Aluminum rough surface 20–50 0.06–0.07 Aluminum sheet, 4 samples 0.03–0.06 differently scratched Aluminum sheet, 4 samples 0.05–0.08 differently scratched Aluminum vacuum deposited 0.04 Aluminum weathered, heavily 0.83–0.94 Aluminum bronze 0.60...
  • Page 198 32 – Emissivity tables Brass rubbed with 80- 0.20 grit emery Brass sheet, rolled 0.06 Brass sheet, worked with emery Brick alumina 0.68 Brick common 0.86–0.81 Brick Dinas silica, 1100 0.85 glazed, rough Brick Dinas silica, refrac- 1000 0.66 tory Brick Dinas silica, 1000...
  • Page 199 32 – Emissivity tables Brick waterproof 0.87 Bronze phosphor bronze 0.06 Bronze phosphor bronze 0.08 Bronze polished Bronze porous, rough 50–150 0.55 Bronze powder 0.76–0.80 Carbon candle soot 0.95 Carbon charcoal powder 0.96 Carbon graphite, filed sur- 0.98 face Carbon graphite powder 0.97 Carbon...
  • Page 200 32 – Emissivity tables Copper oxidized, heavily 0.78 Copper oxidized to black- 0.88 ness Copper polished 50–100 0.02 Copper polished 0.03 Copper polished, commer- 0.03 cial Copper polished, mechan- 0.015 ical Copper pure, carefully 0.008 prepared surface Copper scraped 0.07 Copper dioxide powder 0.84...
  • Page 201 32 – Emissivity tables Granite rough, 4 different 0.95–0.97 samples Gypsum 0.8–0.9 Ice: See Water Iron, cast casting 0.81 Iron, cast ingots 1000 0.95 Iron, cast liquid 1300 0.28 Iron, cast machined 800–1000 0.60–0.70 Iron, cast oxidized 0.63 Iron, cast oxidized 0.64 Iron, cast...
  • Page 202 32 – Emissivity tables Iron and steel hot rolled 0.77 Iron and steel hot rolled 0.60 Iron and steel oxidized 0.74 Iron and steel oxidized 0.74 Iron and steel oxidized 125–525 0.78–0.82 Iron and steel oxidized 0.79 Iron and steel oxidized 1227 0.89...
  • Page 203 32 – Emissivity tables Iron tinned sheet 0.064 Krylon Ultra-flat Flat black Room temperature Ca. 0.96 black 1602 up to 175 Krylon Ultra-flat Flat black Room temperature Ca. 0.97 black 1602 up to 175 Lacquer 3 colors sprayed 0.92–0.94 on Aluminum Lacquer 3 colors sprayed 0.50–0.53...
  • Page 204 32 – Emissivity tables Magnesium 0.18 Magnesium polished 0.07 Magnesium pow- 0.86 Molybdenum 600–1000 0.08–0.13 Molybdenum 1500–2200 0.19–0.26 Molybdenum filament 700–2500 0.1–0.3 Mortar 0.87 Mortar 0.94 Nextel Velvet 811- Flat black –60–150 > 0.97 10 and 21 Black Nichrome rolled 0.25 Nichrome sandblasted...
  • Page 205 32 – Emissivity tables Nickel electroplated on 0.11 iron, unpolished Nickel oxidized 0.37 Nickel oxidized 0.37 Nickel oxidized 1227 0.85 Nickel oxidized at 600°C 200–600 0.37–0.48 Nickel polished 0.045 Nickel wire 200–1000 0.1–0.2 Nickel oxide 500–650 0.52–0.59 Nickel oxide 1000–1250 0.75–0.86 Oil, lubricating 0.025 mm film...
  • Page 206 32 – Emissivity tables Paint oil based, average 0.94 of 16 colors Paint plastic, black 0.95 Paint plastic, white 0.84 Paper 4 different colors 0.92–0.94 Paper 4 different colors 0.68–0.74 Paper black 0.90 Paper black, dull 0.94 Paper black, dull 0.89 Paper black, dull...
  • Page 207 32 – Emissivity tables Plastic polyurethane isola- 0.55 tion board Plastic polyurethane isola- 0.29 tion board Plastic PVC, plastic floor, 0.93 dull, structured Plastic PVC, plastic floor, 0.94 dull, structured Platinum 0.016 Platinum 0.03 Platinum 0.05 Platinum 0.06 Platinum 0.10 Platinum 1000–1500 0.14–0.18...
  • Page 208 32 – Emissivity tables Skin human 0.98 Slag boiler 0–100 0.97–0.93 Slag boiler 200–500 0.89–0.78 Slag boiler 600–1200 0.76–0.70 Slag boiler 1400–1800 0.69–0.67 Snow: See Water Soil 0.92 Soil saturated with wa- 0.95 Stainless steel alloy, 8% Ni, 18% 0.35 Stainless steel rolled 0.45...
  • Page 209 32 – Emissivity tables Titanium oxidized at 540°C 0.40 Titanium oxidized at 540°C 0.50 Titanium oxidized at 540°C 1000 0.60 Titanium polished 0.15 Titanium polished 0.20 Titanium polished 1000 0.36 Tungsten 0.05 Tungsten 600–1000 0.1–0.16 Tungsten 1500–2200 0.24–0.31 Tungsten filament 3300 0.39 Varnish...
  • Page 210 32 – Emissivity tables Wood pine, 4 different 0.81–0.89 samples Wood pine, 4 different 0.67–0.75 samples Wood planed 0.8–0.9 Wood planed oak 0.90 Wood planed oak 0.88 Wood planed oak 0.77 Wood plywood, smooth, 0.82 Wood plywood, untreat- 0.83 Wood white, damp 0.7–0.8 Zinc...
  • Page 211 A note on the technical production of this publication This publication was produced using XML—the eXtensible Markup Language. For more information about XML, please visit http://www.w3.org/XML/ A note on the typeface used in this publication This publication was typeset using Swiss 721, which is Bitstream’s pan-European version of the Helvetica™ typeface. Helvetica™ was designed by Max Miedinger (1910–1980).
  • Page 212 Publ. No. T559059 Rev. a460 – ENGLISH (EN) – July 1, 2010...
  • Page 214 Corporate Headquarters FLIR Systems, Inc. 27700 SW Parkway Avenue Wilsonville, OR 97070 Telephone: +1-800-727-3547 Website: http://www.flir.com...

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